Migrations - Revision history

AlfRedekopp at 16:59, 26 February 2026

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2016-11-20T07:35:15Z

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RichardThiessen at 20:04, 1 November 2014

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← Older revision		Revision as of 16:59, 26 February 2026
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		+	=Introduction=
	Migration is a defining and recurring theme in Mennonite history. The Mennonites of [[Swiss Brethren\|Swiss background]] migrated primarily to South [[Germany\|Germany]], [[France]], and [[Pennsylvania (USA)\|Pennsylvania]]; most of the Mennonites in the [[United States of America\|United States]] east of the Mississippi River are of this background. Smaller groups of Swiss Mennonites also went to [[Netherlands\|Holland]], [[Volhynia (Ukraine)\|Polish Russia]], and [[Prussia]].		Migration is a defining and recurring theme in Mennonite history. The Mennonites of [[Swiss Brethren\|Swiss background]] migrated primarily to South [[Germany\|Germany]], [[France]], and [[Pennsylvania (USA)\|Pennsylvania]]; most of the Mennonites in the [[United States of America\|United States]] east of the Mississippi River are of this background. Smaller groups of Swiss Mennonites also went to [[Netherlands\|Holland]], [[Volhynia (Ukraine)\|Polish Russia]], and [[Prussia]].

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 Since Mennonites first migrated to Mexico from Canada in the 1920s there has been a more or less continuous movement of some returning to Canada. A back and forth movement of Mennonites between these two countries continues to this day, mostly between Mexico and either [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]] or Manitoba. In both Ontario and Manitoba, returnees rarely have the opportunity to become landowners and thus become tenant farmers, laborers, or seasonal workers.
-Since the 1950s, a dramatic growth in population due to a decline in infant mortality has led Mexico's Old Colony Mennonites to found numerous new settlements. They established some new settlements in Mexico, but Mexico's restrictive land purchase laws made expansion difficult. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites established three settlements in [[Belize]] (British Honduras). In 1966 the Old Colony settlements in Belize totaled about 2,800 people. These settlements alleviated the population problem in Mexico only slightly, and in 1967 Old Colonists in Mexico began new settlements in Bolivia. By 1986 nine settlements had been founded in Bolivia by Old Colonists with an adult population of about 5,200. In 1969 the first Old Colony settlement was established in East Paraguay to meet the needs of surplus populations in Mexico. Some [[Old Colony Mennonites] from Belize and Bolivia joined the Mexico Mennonites in East Paraguay. In 1987 the total number of Old Colonists in Paraguay was about 5,000. In the mid-1980s a new settlement by Old Colonists was founded in [[Argentina|Argentina]], and by 1987 numbered about 1,000.
+Since the 1950s, a dramatic growth in population due to a decline in infant mortality has led Mexico's [[Old Colony Mennonites]] to found numerous new settlements. They established some new settlements in Mexico, but Mexico's restrictive land purchase laws made expansion difficult. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites established three settlements in [[Belize]] (British Honduras). In 1966 the Old Colony settlements in Belize totaled about 2,800 people. These settlements alleviated the population problem in Mexico only slightly, and in 1967 Old Colonists in Mexico began new settlements in Bolivia. By 1986 nine settlements had been founded in Bolivia by Old Colonists with an adult population of about 5,200. In 1969 the first Old Colony settlement was established in East Paraguay to meet the needs of surplus populations in Mexico. Some Old Colony Mennonites from Belize and Bolivia joined the Mexico Mennonites in East Paraguay. In 1987 the total number of Old Colonists in Paraguay was about 5,000. In the mid-1980s a new settlement by Old Colonists was founded in [[Argentina|Argentina]], and by 1987 numbered about 1,000.
 In these various migrations, a selection process which frequently developed was that those Old Colonists who migrated were the [[Conservative Mennonites (Dutch-Prussian-Russian)|conservers]], namely, those who felt that the others had left too many of the old ways and had compromised the true faith. In addition, those who migrated had to have the [[Wealth|financial means]] to pay for migration and [[Colonization|resettlement]].

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 <em>50 Jahre Kolonie Fernheim. </em>Paraguay: Kolonie Fernheim, 1980.
-Lehman, James O. "A Grand Migration Scheme." <em>Mennonite Quarterly Review</em> 59 (1985): 383-97.
+Lehman, James O. "A Grand Migration Scheme." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 59 (1985): 383-97.
 <em>Mennonite World Handbook</em> (1984).

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 <em>Mennonite Yearbook &amp; Directory</em> (1986-87).
-Penner, Peter. "Kleinegemeinde Settlers Make a Mark in Nova Scotia." <em>Mennonite Reporter</em> (18 February 1985): 9.
+Penner, Peter. "Kleinegemeinde Settlers Make a Mark in Nova Scotia." ''Mennonite Reporter'' (18 February 1985): 9.
 Redekop, Calvin W. <em>Strangers Become Neighbors: Mennonite and Indigenous Relations in the Paraguayan Chaco.</em> Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1980.
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 Schmiedehaus, Walter. <em>Die Altkolonier-Menoniten in Mexiko.</em> Winnipeg: CMBC, 1982.
-"Troubles Continue for Seminole Settlers." <em>Mennonite Reporter</em> (19 March 1979): 1.
+"Troubles Continue for Seminole Settlers." ''Mennonite Reporter'' (19 March 1979): 1.
 Wiebe, David V. <em>They Seek a Country: a Survey of Mennonite Migrations.</em> Freeman: Pine Hill Press, 1974.

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 As early as 1530 Anabaptists found their way to the Vistula Delta and the migration to this area continued for a long time. Menno Simons and Dirk Philips were instrumental in establishing congregations here. From here the Mennonites moved along the Vistula River even into [[Poland|Poland]] after the triangle between Danzig, [[Elbing (Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland)|Elbing]], and [[Marienburg (Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland)|Marienburg]] had been occupied. Until the middle of the 18th century the surplus population was absorbed in new settlements along the Vistula. Thus far all migration had been on a scale involving small groups. From now on organized large-scale migration of Mennonites of Dutch background became common.
-When Catherine the Great issued her Manifesto in 1763 inviting farmers from Western countries to settle in the [[Ukraine|Ukraine]], the Mennonites of Prussia and Danzig were soon attracted, because they were continually encountering restrictions in their economic and religious life. Later the matter of exemption from military service became important. The approximate number that emigrated to [[Russia|Russia]] in 1787-1870 was 1,907 families, with a total of some 8,000 persons. This constituted a true mass migration of Mennonites in comparison with previous movements. Of this number about 400 families settled at [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza]], some 1,049 at [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna]], some 438 at Samara, and 20 families were reported to have gone to Vilna.
+When Catherine the Great issued her Manifesto in 1763 inviting farmers from Western countries to settle in the [[Ukraine|Ukraine]], the Mennonites of Prussia and Danzig were soon attracted, because they were continually encountering restrictions in their economic and religious life. Later the matter of exemption from military service became important. The approximate number that immigrated to [[Russia|Russia]] in 1787-1870 was 1,907 families, with a total of some 8,000 persons. This constituted a true mass migration of Mennonites in comparison with previous movements. Of this number about 400 families settled at [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza]], some 1,049 at [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna]], some 438 at Samara, and 20 families were reported to have gone to Vilna.
 While the migration eastward was still in progress the Mennonites of [[Russia|Russia]] and Prussia were again studying the map to find a place where they would find complete exemption from military service, which they were in danger of losing in Prussia and Russia. In 1873-84 some 18,000 Mennonites left Russia to settle in the [[United States of America|United States]] and [[Canada|Canada]]. Although the [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza settlement]] (Old Colony) was much smaller than the [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna settlement]], it furnished almost half of the emigrants. Only a small number of the Samara Mennonites, the newest settlement, left. The chief reasons for this mass migration were unwillingness to accept a compulsory alternative service program and the objection to a Russianization program inaugurated by the Russian government. Only a small number of Prussian Mennonites joined this movement, whereas all of the Swiss Volhynian Mennonites of Polish Russia joined, half of the Swiss Galician Mennonites came to America, and many of the Low German Mennonites of [[Poland|Poland]] came to the [[United States of America|United States]] as congregations (Karolswalde, [[Michalin Mennonite Church (Volyn Oblast, Ukraine)|Michalin]], etc.).
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 The first migrations from Switzerland or South [[Germany|Germany]] were of Anabaptists fleeing persecution to a haven of refuge with Hutterites in [[Moravia (Czech Republic)|Moravia]], throughout the 16th century. This was not on a mass scale but included a considerable number of families, sometimes blocks or a whole congregation. [[Hutterite Missioners (Sendboten)|Hutterite missioners]] invited the harried families to come, promising toleration and the security of a large group fellowship. The numbers leaving sometimes were so large, or other resources taken along so great, that the civil authorities took steps to stop the movement, both by counter-persuasion and by penalties, including [[Confiscation of Property|confiscation of property]] and imprisonment, both of those departing and the missioners. To go to Moravia meant of course for the Swiss Brethren not only a migration but a [[Conversion|conversion]] to Hutterianism.
-The next migration, also caused by persecution, which became very severe in Switzerland in the 17th century, was from the cantons of Bern and Zürich down the Rhine to [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] and the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]] on both sides of the Rhine, as well as certain adjoining territories such as [[Durlach (Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg, Germany)|Durlach]] or Zweibrücken. Since the earlier Anabaptists in these territories were almost completely wiped out by 1600-30, all the later Mennonite settlements in these areas were made by emigrants from Switzerland. The heaviest movement was in 1650-90. Some Bernese Anabaptists migrated to the [[Jura Mountains|Jura]] region of the Bishopric of Basel early in the 18th century, and about 1711 some emigrated to Holland. In 1714 the Anabaptists were ordered expelled from Alsace, and many left to found the community in [[Montbéliard (Doubs, Franche-Comté, France)|Montbéliard]], at that time ruled by Württemberg. From 1700 on there was an almost constant internal migration of families from Alsace westward into interior France, northward down the Rhine into Hesse, into Wittgenstein, and finally into Waldeck, where it reached its limit. Mennonite farmers were seeking land to rent and tolerable living conditions and freedom of worship. Mennonites from the Palatinate moved eastward in South [[Germany|Germany]] into Württemberg, Franconia, and Bavaria from about 1800 on. Others went from [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] and the Palatinate to [[Galicia (Poland &amp; Ukraine)|Galicia]] about 1784-85, and some of them later to Volhynia. Shortage of land forced some migration of Swiss Mennonites into Alsace in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
+The next migration, also caused by persecution, which became very severe in Switzerland in the 17th century, was from the cantons of Bern and Zürich down the Rhine to [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] and the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]] on both sides of the Rhine, as well as certain adjoining territories such as [[Durlach (Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg, Germany)|Durlach]] or Zweibrücken. Since the earlier Anabaptists in these territories were almost completely wiped out by 1600-30, all the later Mennonite settlements in these areas were made by emigrants from Switzerland. The heaviest movement was in 1650-90. Some Bernese Anabaptists migrated to the [[Jura Mountains|Jura]] region of the Bishopric of Basel early in the 18th century, and about 1711 some immigrated to Holland. In 1714 the Anabaptists were ordered expelled from Alsace, and many left to found the community in [[Montbéliard (Doubs, Franche-Comté, France)|Montbéliard]], at that time ruled by Württemberg. From 1700 on there was an almost constant internal migration of families from Alsace westward into interior France, northward down the Rhine into Hesse, into Wittgenstein, and finally into Waldeck, where it reached its limit. Mennonite farmers were seeking land to rent and tolerable living conditions and freedom of worship. Mennonites from the Palatinate moved eastward in South [[Germany|Germany]] into Württemberg, Franconia, and Bavaria from about 1800 on. Others went from [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] and the Palatinate to [[Galicia (Poland &amp; Ukraine)|Galicia]] about 1784-85, and some of them later to Volhynia. Shortage of land forced some migration of Swiss Mennonites into Alsace in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
 But the greatest migration of the Swiss-South German Mennonites, both from Switzerland direct and from France, [[Germany|Germany]], and Galicia-Volhynia, was to [[North America|North America]]. This migration was of the greatest significance for the future of the Mennonite movement. Beginning in 1683, one hundred years before the emigration from [[West Prussia|West Prussia]] to [[Russia|Russia]] begun in 1788, it lasted much longer (200 years) and ultimately moved more people. It was, of course, a part of the great Atlantic migration from western Europe to America, in which the Mennonites played a small role, although they have the honor of founding the first permanent German settlement in America at Germantown. This total migration falls into six successive waves: (1) [[Lower Rhine (Germany)|Lower Rhine ]]to Germantown, 1683-1705, 100 persons; (2) Palatinate and Switzerland to Eastern [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] ([[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia ]] and Lancaster districts), 1707-56, 3,000-5,000 persons, mostly Mennonite, possibly 300 [[Amish Mennonites|Amish]]; (3) Alsatian, Bavarian, and Hessian Amish to Ohio, [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], [[Illinois (USA)|Illinois]], 1815-80, possibly 3,000 persons; (4) Swiss Mennonites to Ohio and [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], 1830-60, possibly 500 persons; (5) Palatine Mennonites to Ohio, [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], [[Illinois (USA)|Illinois]], possibly 300 persons; stragglers of the last three groups continued to come after the Civil War (1861-65) until toward the end of the 19th century; (6) Galician and Volhynian Mennonites to [[Kansas (USA)|Kansas]] and [[South Dakota (USA)|South Dakota]], 1875-80, about 400 persons. A total of possibly 8,000 persons crossed the Atlantic in the two centuries. Almost all of the first three waves found fellowship together in what is known as the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]]. Including some Amish who never joined (remaining Old Order) and the schismatic groups, Oberholtzer (GCM), Holdeman (CGC, a minority part only), Reformed Mennonites, Evangelical (Defenseless) Mennonites, and [[Central Conference Mennonite Church|Central Conference ]](GCM), the total Mennonite membership in the United States and Canada in 1956 of the descendants of these 8,000 immigrants of 1683 to 1883 number approximately 120,000 or three fifths of the total Mennonite membership. Since only 10,000 of this number are in Canada, the 110,000 in the United States (not counting the [[United Missionary Church|United Missionary Church]]) were over two thirds or about 70 per cent of the total number of Mennonites in the United States. A small Dutch group from [[Balk (Friesland, Netherlands)|Balk]] came to New Paris, Ind., in 1853.

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 === Dutch-North German Mennonite Migrations ===
-When [[Anabaptism|Anabaptism]] established itself in the Low Countries under most adverse conditions, migration to other countries was often the only chance for survival. The [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] from Flanders went to the northern provinces of the Low Countries. On the other hand, German [[East Friesland (Niedersachsen, Germany)|East Friesland]] became the haven of religious refugees from the Low Countries as a whole. [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], [[Dirk Philips (1504-1568)|Dirk Philips]], [[Leenaert Bouwens (1515-1582)|Leenaert Bouwens]], [[David Joris (ca. 1501-1556)|David Joris]], and many other early leaders and their followers found shelter there. Another German province which soon became a haven of Anabaptist refugees was [[Schleswig-Holstein (Germany)|Schleswig-Holstein]]. Wüstenfelde near [[Oldesloe (Schleswig-Holstein, Germany)|Oldesloe]] became a Mennonite settlement with Menno Simons as leader. Soon Altona and[[Friedrichstadt (Schleswig-Holstein, Germany)|Friedrichstadt]]  attracted refugees.
+When [[Anabaptism|Anabaptism]] established itself in the Low Countries under most adverse conditions, migration to other countries was often the only chance for survival. The [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] from Flanders went to the northern provinces of the Low Countries. On the other hand, German [[East Friesland (Niedersachsen, Germany)|East Friesland]] became the haven of religious refugees from the Low Countries as a whole. [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], [[Dirk Philips (1504-1568)|Dirk Philips]], [[Leenaert Bouwens (1515-1582)|Leenaert Bouwens]], [[David Joris (ca. 1501-1556)|David Joris]], and many other early leaders and their followers found shelter there. Another German province which soon became a haven of Anabaptist refugees was [[Schleswig-Holstein (Germany)|Schleswig-Holstein]]. Wüstenfelde near [[Oldesloe (Schleswig-Holstein, Germany)|Oldesloe]] became a Mennonite settlement with Menno Simons as leader. Soon Altona and [[Friedrichstadt (Schleswig-Holstein, Germany)|Friedrichstadt]]  attracted refugees.
 As early as 1530 Anabaptists found their way to the Vistula Delta and the migration to this area continued for a long time. Menno Simons and Dirk Philips were instrumental in establishing congregations here. From here the Mennonites moved along the Vistula River even into [[Poland|Poland]] after the triangle between Danzig, [[Elbing (Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland)|Elbing]], and [[Marienburg (Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland)|Marienburg]] had been occupied. Until the middle of the 18th century the surplus population was absorbed in new settlements along the Vistula. Thus far all migration had been on a scale involving small groups. From now on organized large-scale migration of Mennonites of Dutch background became common.

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 === Introduction ===
-Mennonites and their history are characterized by severe persecution and subsequent migrations. The Mennonites of Swiss background migrated primarily to South [[Germany|Germany]], France, and [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]]; most of the Mennonites cast of the Mississippi River are of this background. Smaller groups of Swiss Mennonites also went to Holland, Polish [[Russia|Russia]], and Prussia.
+Mennonites and their history are characterized by severe persecution and subsequent migrations. The Mennonites of Swiss background migrated primarily to South [[Germany|Germany]], France, and [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]]; most of the Mennonites east of the Mississippi River are of this background. Smaller groups of Swiss Mennonites also went to Holland, Polish [[Russia|Russia]], and Prussia.
 During the 16th century the Mennonites of the Low Countries went primarily eastward to Danzig and Polish Russia, and only during the second half of the 19th century did their descendants begin to come to America, with the exception of the first Dutch-German Mennonite families who settled in [[Germantown Mennonite Settlement (Pennsylvania, USA)|Germantown]], Pennsylvania. Those coming during the 19th century settled mostly in the prairie states and provinces, and are thus located west of the Mississippi River. Almost all Mennonites that have migrated to [[South America|South America]] are of this background.

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 In contrast to the urbanization of many Mennonites, in both Canada and the [[United States of America|United States]], other Mennonites have migrated in order to maintain a rural lifestyle. Attracted by the availability of good quality land and relative isolation from political and cultural pressures, the surplus populations of Old Colony, Reinländer, Sommerfelder, Chortitzer, and Saskatchewan [[Bergthal Mennonites|Bergthaler]] churches have migrated to the Peace River and other northern areas of Alberta and [[British Columbia (Canada)|British Columbia]].
-In the United States, Old Order Amish and Mennonites, as well as some Conservative Mennonites, have migrated to acquire sufficient land for their people. They have been buying land in the states of [[Alabama (USA)|Alabama]], [[Arkansas (USA)|Arkansas]], [[Florida (USA)|Florida]], [[Kentucky (USA)|Kentucky]], [[Minnesota (USA)|Minnesota]], [[Missouri (USA)|Missouri]], [[Montana (USA)|Montana]], [[New York (USA)|New York]], [[Oklahoma (USA)|Oklahoma]], [[Tennessee (USA)|Tennessee]], [[Texas (USA)|Texas]], and [[Wisconsin (USA)|Wisconsin]] as well as in those areas of [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], and [[Michigan (State)|Michigan]] that previously had no Amish or Old Order communities.
+In the United States, Old Order Amish and Mennonites, as well as some Conservative Mennonites, have migrated to acquire sufficient land for their people. They have been buying land in the states of [[Alabama (USA)|Alabama]], [[Arkansas (USA)|Arkansas]], [[Florida (USA)|Florida]], [[Kentucky (USA)|Kentucky]], [[Minnesota (USA)|Minnesota]], [[Missouri (USA)|Missouri]], [[Montana (USA)|Montana]], [[New York (USA)|New York]], [[Oklahoma (USA)|Oklahoma]], [[Tennessee (USA)|Tennessee]], [[Texas (USA)|Texas]], and [[Wisconsin (USA)|Wisconsin]] as well as in those areas of [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], and [[Michigan (USA)|Michigan]] that previously had no Amish or Old Order communities.
 A few groups in the Unites States and [[Canada|Canada]] have also used rural migration as a mission strategy. Through group relocation in various parts of [[North America|North America]], they have attempted to form nuclei of churches which were expected to grow by drawing in people from the surrounding population. The Church of God in Christ Mennonite (Holdeman), [[Beachy Amish Mennonite Fellowship|Beachy Amish]], and Conservative Mennonite churches have migrated not only within North America, but also into Latin America, for this reason.