Bishop (Ältester) - Revision history

AlfRedekopp at 17:22, 26 February 2026

2026-02-26T17:22:50Z

JeremyWiebe: JeremyWiebe moved page Bishop to Bishop (Ältester): Title change to reflect usage, by Gerald Ens

2025-06-17T17:45:25Z

JeremyWiebe moved page Bishop to Bishop (Ältester): Title change to reflect usage, by Gerald Ens

JeremyWiebe: Major revision by Gerald Ens

2025-06-17T17:42:56Z

Major revision by Gerald Ens

JeremyWiebe at 17:40, 17 June 2025

2025-06-17T17:40:16Z

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SamSteiner: Text replacement - "[[LMC: A Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches" to "[[LMC: a Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches"

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Text replacement - "[[LMC: A Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches" to "[[LMC: a Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches"

SamSteiner: Text replacement - "[[Lancaster Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)" to "[[LMC: A Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches"

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Text replacement - "[[Lancaster Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)" to "[[LMC: A Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches"

RichardThiessen: Text replace - "Mennonitisches Lexikon, 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I," to "''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I,"

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Text replace - "Mennonitisches Lexikon, 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I," to "''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I,"

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Bishop is the title used by several groups of Mennonites in America for the highest ministerial office. The corresponding term in Dutch was oudste (although bisschop was also occasionally used) and in German Aeltester, English translation "[[Elder (Ältester)|elder]]." In the [[United States of America|United States]] those groups which descended from European immigrants who arrived after 1800 from [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Germany|Germany]], or [[Russia|Russia]], and did not affiliate with the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] whose foundation and organization was laid by immigrants from Germany and Switzerland in the 18th century, used almost exclusively the German term "Aeltester" and later its English form "elder," but those who affiliated with the Mennonite Church adopted the term "bishop." However, in [[Canada|Canada]], the older [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference]] congregations, the [[Bergthal Mennonites|Bergthal]], the [[Kleine Gemeinde|Kleine Gemeinde]], and similar conservative groups used "bishop" freely in their English usage. The [[Eastern District Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Eastern District Conference]] of the General Conference Mennonite Church, having originated in 1847-1848 in a schism from the Mennonite Church (MC) in Eastern [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], wavered, first using "bishop," but later after affiliation with the newer immigrant groups of the General Conference Church, adopted "elder." The following [[United States of America|United States]] groups (and their Canadian congregations) used "bishop" exclusively: Mennonites (MC), [[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonites]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Conservative Mennonite Conference|Conservative Amish]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], and smaller related groups. Vos claims "bisschop" was the term first used by [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips]] and [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] in the beginning in Holland, later supplanted by "oudste."

Bishop is the title used by several groups of Mennonites in America for the highest ministerial office. The corresponding term in Dutch was oudste (although bisschop was also occasionally used) and in German Aeltester, English translation "[[Elder (Ältester)|elder]]." In the [[United States of America|United States]] those groups which descended from European immigrants who arrived after 1800 from [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Germany|Germany]], or [[Russia|Russia]], and did not affiliate with the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] whose foundation and organization was laid by immigrants from Germany and Switzerland in the 18th century, used almost exclusively the German term "Aeltester" and later its English form "elder," but those who affiliated with the Mennonite Church adopted the term "bishop." However, in [[Canada|Canada]], the older [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference]] congregations, the [[Bergthal Mennonites|Bergthal]], the [[Kleine Gemeinde|Kleine Gemeinde]], and similar conservative groups used "bishop" freely in their English usage. The [[Eastern District Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Eastern District Conference]] of the General Conference Mennonite Church, having originated in 1847-1848 in a schism from the Mennonite Church (MC) in Eastern [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], wavered, first using "bishop," but later after affiliation with the newer immigrant groups of the General Conference Church, adopted "elder." The following [[United States of America|United States]] groups (and their Canadian congregations) used "bishop" exclusively: Mennonites (MC), [[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonites]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Conservative Mennonite Conference|Conservative Amish]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], and smaller related groups. Vos claims "bisschop" was the term first used by [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips]] and [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] in the beginning in Holland, later supplanted by "oudste."

−
The history of the usage of the term "bishop" has not been fully traced. Without doubt the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] in the United States was responsible for its introduction into the English ecclesiastical terminology of Mennonites, but exactly when this occurred is not certain. [[Herr, Christian (1780-1853)|Christian Herr]], a leader of the [[Lancaster Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Lancaster Mennonite Conference]], wrote a brief article on the Mennonites for [[Rupp, Israel Daniel (1803-1878)|I. D. Rupp's]] History of all the Religious Denominations in the United States (Harrisburg, 1848), in which he speaks of the [[Ministry (Switzerland, South Germany, France, North America)|threefold ministry]] of the Mennonites as "bishops, elders or ministers, and deacons." An 1849 remonstrance by the officials of the [[Deep Run Mennonite Church East (Perkasie, Pennsylvania, USA)|Deep Run Mennonite (MC) congregation]] of the [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]] against the organization of an Oberholtzer congregation at that place, addressed to the [[Bucks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bucks County]] Court, was signed by two "bishops," two "ministers," and two "elders," where the title "elder" meant "deacon" (J. C. Wenger, History of the Mennonites of the ~~Franconia~~ Conference, Telford, 1938, 363). The ~~Ordnung~~ der Mennonitischen Gemeinschaft, adopted and printed by the [[East Pennsylvania Conference of the Mennonite Church|Oberholtzer group]] in 1848, said in the section Von den Aemtern, "Die Aemter unserer Gemeinschaft sind dreierlei: Erstens, Das Amt der Bestätigten oder Bischöfe; Zweitens, Das Amt der gemeinen Lehrer oder Prediger; Drittens, Das Amt der Vorsteher oder Diaconen. Niemand kann zum Bestätigten oder Bischof gewählt werden . . . . " [[Oberholtzer, John H. (1809-1895)|John H. Oberholtzer]] himself, though ordained to the office after he left the old church, assumed the title of "bishop," as was clearly indicated by the title of his 1860 book, Der Wahre Charakter von ~~~~J. ~~~~H. Oberholtzer, Prediger und Bischof . . . , and the obituary article about him which appeared in the 1896 Mennonite Year Book and Almanac called him bishop and told of his "ordination to the office of bishop" in 1847. A list of ordained men of the [[Mennonite Conference of Ontario and Quebec|Ontario Mennonite Conference]] (MC) printed about 1853 listed "bishops, ministers, and deacons," and the printed 1864 German minutes of that conference use the German term "Bischöfe." (This conference had strong connections with the Franconia Conference, many of its families having emigrated from that area to Ontario 1780-1820.)
+
The history of the usage of the term "bishop" has not been fully traced. Without doubt the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] in the United States was responsible for its introduction into the English ecclesiastical terminology of Mennonites, but exactly when this occurred is not certain. [[Herr, Christian (1780-1853)|Christian Herr]], a leader of the [[Lancaster Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Lancaster Mennonite Conference]], wrote a brief article on the Mennonites for [[Rupp, Israel Daniel (1803-1878)|I. D. Rupp's]] History of all the Religious Denominations in the United States (Harrisburg, 1848), in which he speaks of the [[Ministry (Switzerland, South Germany, France, North America)|threefold ministry]] of the Mennonites as "bishops, elders or ministers, and deacons." An 1849 remonstrance by the officials of the [[Deep Run Mennonite Church East (Perkasie, Pennsylvania, USA)|Deep Run Mennonite (MC) congregation]] of the [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]] against the organization of an Oberholtzer congregation at that place, addressed to the [[Bucks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bucks County]] Court, was signed by two "bishops," two "ministers," and two "elders," where the title "elder" meant "deacon" (J. C. Wenger, History of the Mennonites of the Franconia Conference, Telford, 1938, 363). The Ordnung der Mennonitischen Gemeinschaft, adopted and printed by the [[East Pennsylvania Conference of the Mennonite Church|Oberholtzer group]] in 1848, said in the section Von den Aemtern, "Die Aemter unserer Gemeinschaft sind dreierlei: Erstens, Das Amt der Bestätigten oder Bischöfe; Zweitens, Das Amt der gemeinen Lehrer oder Prediger; Drittens, Das Amt der Vorsteher oder Diaconen. Niemand kann zum Bestätigten oder Bischof gewählt werden . . . . " [[Oberholtzer, John H. (1809-1895)|John H. Oberholtzer]] himself, though ordained to the office after he left the old church, assumed the title of "bishop," as was clearly indicated by the title of his 1860 book, Der Wahre Charakter von J. H. Oberholtzer, Prediger und Bischof . . . , and the obituary article about him which appeared in the 1896 Mennonite Year Book and Almanac called him bishop and told of his "ordination to the office of bishop" in 1847. A list of ordained men of the [[Mennonite Conference of Ontario and Quebec|Ontario Mennonite Conference]] (MC) printed about 1853 listed "bishops, ministers, and deacons," and the printed 1864 German minutes of that conference use the German term "Bischöfe." (This conference had strong connections with the Franconia Conference, many of its families having emigrated from that area to Ontario 1780-1820.)

It is possible that the use of "bishop" was unintentionally promoted by the [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht Confession]] of 1632 (first German edition 1664, first English edition 1712 in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] and 1727 in Philadelphia), which used the term "bisschop" (Dutch), "Bischof" (German), as well as "oudste," "Aeltester," and "elder," and which was adopted as the official confession of the Pennsylvania Mennonites in 1725. At any rate, it seems clear that the Pennsylvania Mennonites as early as 1845 were using "bishop" in both English and German, and reserved "Aeltester" as the German word for "deacon." In view of the traditionalism of this group, it is most probable that this usage goes back into the 18th century at least. The Pennsylvania Amish and their descendants must have used "Bischof" (and more recently "Bishop") in the German for almost as long.

It is possible that the use of "bishop" was unintentionally promoted by the [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht Confession]] of 1632 (first German edition 1664, first English edition 1712 in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] and 1727 in Philadelphia), which used the term "bisschop" (Dutch), "Bischof" (German), as well as "oudste," "Aeltester," and "elder," and which was adopted as the official confession of the Pennsylvania Mennonites in 1725. At any rate, it seems clear that the Pennsylvania Mennonites as early as 1845 were using "bishop" in both English and German, and reserved "Aeltester" as the German word for "deacon." In view of the traditionalism of this group, it is most probable that this usage goes back into the 18th century at least. The Pennsylvania Amish and their descendants must have used "Bischof" (and more recently "Bishop") in the German for almost as long.

−
There is no evidence that "Aeltester" was regularly used for "bishop" by either the Amish or Mennonite groups of [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] (and their European Swiss, Alsatian, and South German ancestors). The corresponding German terms which they used were Bestätigter Diener (confirmed minister), ~~Völliger~~ Diener, or Voller Diener (full minister). It is probable that "oudste" or "Aeltester" (elder) was a more characteristic Dutch-North German-Prussian-Russian term and only in the 19th century came to be used in South [[Germany|Germany]], [[France|France]], and Switzerland, where it has apparently been the standard term for over a century. However, the [[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|Concept ]][[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|of Cologne]] (1591), printed in Holland in 1660, the oldest of the Dutch-Northwest German confessions, used the term bishop in the following sentence (p. 110), Een Bisschop of Leeraer sal ~~~~onstraffelijck sijn.
+
There is no evidence that "Aeltester" was regularly used for "bishop" by either the Amish or Mennonite groups of [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] (and their European Swiss, Alsatian, and South German ancestors). The corresponding German terms which they used were Bestätigter Diener (confirmed minister), Völliger Diener, or Voller Diener (full minister). It is probable that "oudste" or "Aeltester" (elder) was a more characteristic Dutch-North German-Prussian-Russian term and only in the 19th century came to be used in South [[Germany|Germany]], [[France|France]], and Switzerland, where it has apparently been the standard term for over a century. However, the [[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|Concept ]][[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|of Cologne]] (1591), printed in Holland in 1660, the oldest of the Dutch-Northwest German confessions, used the term bishop in the following sentence (p. 110), Een Bisschop of Leeraer sal onstraffelijck sijn.

The Minister's Manual of the Mennonite Church (MC), first published by [[Funk, John Fretz (1835-1930)|John F. Funk]] at Elkhart in 1890, defined the office of bishop in the following paragraph:

The Minister's Manual of the Mennonite Church (MC), first published by [[Funk, John Fretz (1835-1930)|John F. Funk]] at Elkhart in 1890, defined the office of bishop in the following paragraph:

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It is possible that the use of "bishop" was unintentionally promoted by the [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht Confession]] of 1632 (first German edition 1664, first English edition 1712 in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] and 1727 in Philadelphia), which used the term "bisschop" (Dutch), "Bischof" (German), as well as "oudste," "Aeltester," and "elder," and which was adopted as the official confession of the Pennsylvania Mennonites in 1725. At any rate, it seems clear that the Pennsylvania Mennonites as early as 1845 were using "bishop" in both English and German, and reserved "Aeltester" as the German word for "deacon." In view of the traditionalism of this group, it is most probable that this usage goes back into the 18th century at least. The Pennsylvania Amish and their descendants must have used "Bischof" (and more recently "Bishop") in the German for almost as long.

It is possible that the use of "bishop" was unintentionally promoted by the [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht Confession]] of 1632 (first German edition 1664, first English edition 1712 in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] and 1727 in Philadelphia), which used the term "bisschop" (Dutch), "Bischof" (German), as well as "oudste," "Aeltester," and "elder," and which was adopted as the official confession of the Pennsylvania Mennonites in 1725. At any rate, it seems clear that the Pennsylvania Mennonites as early as 1845 were using "bishop" in both English and German, and reserved "Aeltester" as the German word for "deacon." In view of the traditionalism of this group, it is most probable that this usage goes back into the 18th century at least. The Pennsylvania Amish and their descendants must have used "Bischof" (and more recently "Bishop") in the German for almost as long.

−
There is no evidence that "Aeltester" was regularly used for "bishop" by either the Amish or Mennonite groups of [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] (and their European Swiss, Alsatian, and South German ancestors). The corresponding German terms which they used were Bestätigter Diener (confirmed minister), Völliger Diener, or Voller Diener (full minister). It is probable that "oudste" or "Aeltester" (elder) was a more characteristic Dutch-North German-Prussian-Russian term and only in the 19th century came to be used in South [[Germany|Germany]], [[France|France]], and Switzerland, where it has apparently been the standard term for over a century. However, the [[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|Concept ]][[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|of Cologne]]~~ ~~(1591), printed in Holland in 1660, the oldest of the Dutch-Northwest German confessions, used the term bishop in the following sentence (p. 110), Een Bisschop of Leeraer sal onstraffelijck sijn.
+
There is no evidence that "Aeltester" was regularly used for "bishop" by either the Amish or Mennonite groups of [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] (and their European Swiss, Alsatian, and South German ancestors). The corresponding German terms which they used were Bestätigter Diener (confirmed minister), Völliger Diener, or Voller Diener (full minister). It is probable that "oudste" or "Aeltester" (elder) was a more characteristic Dutch-North German-Prussian-Russian term and only in the 19th century came to be used in South [[Germany|Germany]], [[France|France]], and Switzerland, where it has apparently been the standard term for over a century. However, the [[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|Concept ]][[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|of Cologne]] (1591), printed in Holland in 1660, the oldest of the Dutch-Northwest German confessions, used the term bishop in the following sentence (p. 110), Een Bisschop of Leeraer sal onstraffelijck sijn.

The Minister's Manual of the Mennonite Church (MC), first published by [[Funk, John Fretz (1835-1930)|John F. Funk]] at Elkhart in 1890, defined the office of bishop in the following paragraph:

The Minister's Manual of the Mennonite Church (MC), first published by [[Funk, John Fretz (1835-1930)|John F. Funk]] at Elkhart in 1890, defined the office of bishop in the following paragraph:

RichardThiessen: Text replace - "Ohio (State)" to "Ohio (USA)"

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The full servant, however, was often simply the congregation's leader, and not a "bishop," in the sense of having oversight over a district of congregations. In some area conferences, e.g., [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]], one "full servant" could, and often did, have oversight over several congregations that had developed out of the various meetingplaces of what earlier had been a single congregation.

The full servant, however, was often simply the congregation's leader, and not a "bishop," in the sense of having oversight over a district of congregations. In some area conferences, e.g., [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]], one "full servant" could, and often did, have oversight over several congregations that had developed out of the various meetingplaces of what earlier had been a single congregation.

−
In other area conferences, e.g., Franklin, [[Lancaster Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Lancaster]], and [[Virginia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Virginia]], the idea of bishop as having official oversight over a definite district has a more formal and long-standing tradition that probably shows a more direct influence of the Low-Country Mennonite pattern as established in the time of Menno Simons. These same conferences -- Franklin, Lancaster, and Virginia -- still (1999) maintain a formal bishop's office, including bishop districts. A few other independent conferences also fit in here, such as the Cumberland Valley Mennonite Church, the [[Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church|Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church]], the [[Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship|Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship]], and the [[Southeastern Mennonite Conference|Southeastern Mennonite Conference]]. Most Old Order Mennonite groups in [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia (USA)|Virginia]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], [[Ohio (~~State~~)|Ohio]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], and [[Missouri (USA)|Missouri]] also fit this scheme, again probably due to the Low-Country Mennonite influence. This came, most likely, through Jakob Amman's overt interest in Menno Simons and Dirk Philips and their approach to church government. Later, the [[Old Order Amish]] generally rejected the bishop district idea, having instead only a volliger Diene(r) (full servant) with [[Authority|authority]] to serve the interests of one congregation only.
+
In other area conferences, e.g., Franklin, [[Lancaster Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Lancaster]], and [[Virginia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Virginia]], the idea of bishop as having official oversight over a definite district has a more formal and long-standing tradition that probably shows a more direct influence of the Low-Country Mennonite pattern as established in the time of Menno Simons. These same conferences -- Franklin, Lancaster, and Virginia -- still (1999) maintain a formal bishop's office, including bishop districts. A few other independent conferences also fit in here, such as the Cumberland Valley Mennonite Church, the [[Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church|Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church]], the [[Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship|Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship]], and the [[Southeastern Mennonite Conference|Southeastern Mennonite Conference]]. Most Old Order Mennonite groups in [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia (USA)|Virginia]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], and [[Missouri (USA)|Missouri]] also fit this scheme, again probably due to the Low-Country Mennonite influence. This came, most likely, through Jakob Amman's overt interest in Menno Simons and Dirk Philips and their approach to church government. Later, the [[Old Order Amish]] generally rejected the bishop district idea, having instead only a volliger Diene(r) (full servant) with [[Authority|authority]] to serve the interests of one congregation only.

Since the 1960s, almost all other area conferences of the larger Mennonite groups have moved away from the idea of bishop; in the 1980s the term overseer became the term used for the area-conference coordinator for most such conferences -- a term more in line with the traditional (modified) [[Congregationalism|congregationalism]] of most Anabaptist and Mennonite groups over the centuries.

Since the 1960s, almost all other area conferences of the larger Mennonite groups have moved away from the idea of bishop; in the 1980s the term overseer became the term used for the area-conference coordinator for most such conferences -- a term more in line with the traditional (modified) [[Congregationalism|congregationalism]] of most Anabaptist and Mennonite groups over the centuries.

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:22, 26 February 2026
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		+	=Introduction=
	In [[North America\|North]] and [[South America]], many Mennonite groups of both [[Netherlands\|Dutch]] and [[Switzerland\|Swiss]] extraction have been, and in some cases continue to be, structured under the complete authority of a single ministerial office overseeing multiple congregations in a region. The common [[English Language\|English]] term for this office is "bishop" ("elder" is also common) and the common [[German Language\|German]] term is ''Ältester'' (with some Swiss groups historically using other terms, such as ''Voller Diener''). This article will use the term "bishop" to outline the history and overlapping conventions of this high ministerial office among disparate Mennonite groups in the Americas. For the historical office of an elder in Europe, see [[Elder]].		In [[North America\|North]] and [[South America]], many Mennonite groups of both [[Netherlands\|Dutch]] and [[Switzerland\|Swiss]] extraction have been, and in some cases continue to be, structured under the complete authority of a single ministerial office overseeing multiple congregations in a region. The common [[English Language\|English]] term for this office is "bishop" ("elder" is also common) and the common [[German Language\|German]] term is ''Ältester'' (with some Swiss groups historically using other terms, such as ''Voller Diener''). This article will use the term "bishop" to outline the history and overlapping conventions of this high ministerial office among disparate Mennonite groups in the Americas. For the historical office of an elder in Europe, see [[Elder]].

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 As of the end of the 20th century, many traditional groups throughout North and South America continued to employ the office of a single bishop per geographical region, no matter how numerous the subgroups or congregations or how large the membership. Among Mennonites of Dutch descent in Canada and Latin America, this includes the [[Old Colony Mennonites]], the [[Sommerfeld Mennonites|Sommerfelder Mennonites]], the [[Bergthal Mennonites#Saskatchewan Bergthaler|Saskatchewan Bergthaler]], the [[Kleine Gemeinde]], and the Zion Mennonites. Among traditional Swiss Mennonites, the Franklin, Lancaster, and Virginia conferences continued to maintain a formal bishop's office, including bishop districts. A few other independent conferences also fit in here, such as the [[Cumberland Valley Mennonite Church]], the [[Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church]], the [[Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship]], and the [[Southeastern Mennonite Conference]]. Most |[[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonite]] groups in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ontario, Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri also fit this scheme. The office of bishop was also used in the 20th century in the Mennonite churches in the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Soviet Union]] and in the [[Germany#Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland)|Federal Republic of Germany]]. As of the end of the 20th century, all Mennonite churches in [[Mexico]] used the bishop office, including the General Conference, Old Colony, Sommerfelder, Kleine Gemeinde, and Reinlander.
-=1953 statistics=
+=1953 Statistics=
 Some statistics regarding some of the major Mennonite groups in Canada and the United States in 1953 provide a snapshot of the time just prior to the end of the bishop-led Gemeinde system among many church groups. There were in the Mennonite Church (MC) about 570 congregations and 71,500 members, with roughly 180 bishops, 860 ministers, and 380 deacons. The Old Order Amish with 15,000 members in 160 congregations had 161 bishops, 381 ministers, 155 deacons. The Conservative Amish with almost 6,000 members in 42 congregations had 42 bishops, 76 ministers, 18 deacons. The Old Order Mennonites with 5,500 members in 45 congregations had 14 bishops, 50 ministers, and 34 deacons. The Kleine Gemeinde of Manitoba with 2,000 members had 2 bishops, 17 ministers, 6 deacons. The Bergthal Church in Manitoba with 3,500 members had 2 bishops and 21 ministers. The Conference of Mennonites in Canada with 15,500 members in 63 congregations had 32 bishops or elders (only 18 had died in the entire history of the conference) and 240 ministers.

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 This represents a return to a traditional Swiss South German and Dutch (before and after the Menno Simons and Dordrecht Confession era) [[Denominationalism|denominational]] structure for most Mennonite congregations and areas: a congregational pattern, modified by a synodal element (triennial general conferences [GCM] and biennial general assemblies (MC). For the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]], an important shift away from the bishop idea came at the time of a major denominational restructuring in 1971. The several regional conferences that still hold on to the bishop district, as noted above, in effect continue to maintain the church government of the Dutch Mennonites as established during Menno Simons' time. -- <em>Leonard Gross</em>
 = Bibliography =
-Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. <em>Mennonitisches Lexikon</em>, 4 vols. Frankfurt &amp; Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 224.
+Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. ''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt &amp; Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 224.
 Vos, K. "De keuze tot Doopsgezind Bisschop." <em>Nederlandscharchiefvoor kerkgeschiedenis</em> 16 (1921).
 {{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 347-349; vol. 5, p. 86|date=1989|a1_last=Bender|a1_first=Harold S.|a2_last=Gross|a2_first=Leonard}}

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 Bishop is the title used by several groups of Mennonites in America for the highest ministerial office. The corresponding term in Dutch was <em>oudste </em>(although <em>bisschop </em>was also occasionally used) and in German <em>Aeltester, </em>English translation "[[Elder (Ältester)|elder]]." In the [[United States of America|United States]] those groups which descended from European immigrants who arrived after 1800 from [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Germany|Germany]], or [[Russia|Russia]], and did not affiliate with the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] whose foundation and organization was laid by immigrants from Germany and Switzerland in the 18th century, used almost exclusively the German term "Aeltester" and later its English form "elder," but those who affiliated with the Mennonite Church adopted the term "bishop." However, in [[Canada|Canada]], the older [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference]] congregations, the [[Bergthal Mennonites|Bergthal]], the [[Kleine Gemeinde|Kleine Gemeinde]], and similar conservative groups used "bishop" freely in their English usage. The [[Eastern District Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Eastern District Conference]] of the General Conference Mennonite Church, having originated in 1847-1848 in a schism from the Mennonite Church (MC) in Eastern [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], wavered, first using "bishop," but later after affiliation with the newer immigrant groups of the General Conference Church, adopted "elder." The following [[United States of America|United States]] groups (and their Canadian congregations) used "bishop" exclusively: Mennonites (MC), [[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonites]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Conservative Mennonite Conference|Conservative Amish]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], and smaller related groups. Vos claims "bisschop" was the term first used by [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips]] and [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] in the beginning in Holland, later supplanted by "oudste."
-The history of the usage of the term "bishop" has not been fully traced. Without doubt the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] in the United States was responsible for its introduction into the English ecclesiastical terminology of Mennonites, but exactly when this occurred is not certain. [[Herr, Christian (1780-1853)|Christian Herr]], a leader of the [[LMC: A Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches|Lancaster Mennonite Conference]], wrote a brief article on the Mennonites for [[Rupp, Israel Daniel (1803-1878)|I. D. Rupp's]] <em>History of all the Religious Denominations in the United States </em>(Harrisburg, 1848), in which he speaks of the [[Ministry (Switzerland, South Germany, France, North America)|threefold ministry]] of the Mennonites as "bishops, elders or ministers, and deacons." An 1849 remonstrance by the officials of the [[Deep Run  Mennonite Church East (Perkasie, Pennsylvania, USA)|Deep Run Mennonite (MC) congregation]] of the [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]] against the organization of an Oberholtzer congregation at that place, addressed to the [[Bucks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bucks County]] Court, was signed by two "bishops," two "ministers," and two "elders," where the title "elder" meant "deacon" (J. C. Wenger, <em>History of the Mennonites of the Franconia Conference, </em>Telford, 1938, 363). The <em>Ordnung der Mennonitischen Gemeinschaft, </em>adopted and printed by the [[East Pennsylvania Conference of the Mennonite Church|Oberholtzer group]] in 1848, said in the section <em>Von den Aemtern, </em>"Die Aemter unserer Gemeinschaft sind dreierlei: Erstens, Das Amt der Bestätigten oder Bischöfe; Zweitens, Das Amt der gemeinen Lehrer oder Prediger; Drittens, Das Amt der Vorsteher oder Diaconen. Niemand kann zum Bestätigten oder Bischof gewählt werden . . . . " [[Oberholtzer, John H. (1809-1895)|John H. Oberholtzer]] himself, though ordained to the office after he left the old church, assumed the title of "bishop," as was clearly indicated by the title of his 1860 book, <em>Der Wahre Charakter von J. H. Oberholtzer, Prediger und Bischof . .</em> . , and the obituary article about him which appeared in the 1896 <em>Mennonite Year Book and Almanac </em>called him bishop and told of his "ordination to the office of bishop" in 1847. A list of ordained men of the [[Mennonite Conference of Ontario and Quebec|Ontario Mennonite Conference]] (MC) printed about 1853 listed "bishops, ministers, and deacons," and the printed 1864 German minutes of that conference use the German term "Bischöfe." (This conference had strong connections with the Franconia Conference, many of its families having emigrated from that area to Ontario 1780-1820.)
+The history of the usage of the term "bishop" has not been fully traced. Without doubt the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] in the United States was responsible for its introduction into the English ecclesiastical terminology of Mennonites, but exactly when this occurred is not certain. [[Herr, Christian (1780-1853)|Christian Herr]], a leader of the [[LMC: a Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches|Lancaster Mennonite Conference]], wrote a brief article on the Mennonites for [[Rupp, Israel Daniel (1803-1878)|I. D. Rupp's]] <em>History of all the Religious Denominations in the United States </em>(Harrisburg, 1848), in which he speaks of the [[Ministry (Switzerland, South Germany, France, North America)|threefold ministry]] of the Mennonites as "bishops, elders or ministers, and deacons." An 1849 remonstrance by the officials of the [[Deep Run  Mennonite Church East (Perkasie, Pennsylvania, USA)|Deep Run Mennonite (MC) congregation]] of the [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]] against the organization of an Oberholtzer congregation at that place, addressed to the [[Bucks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bucks County]] Court, was signed by two "bishops," two "ministers," and two "elders," where the title "elder" meant "deacon" (J. C. Wenger, <em>History of the Mennonites of the Franconia Conference, </em>Telford, 1938, 363). The <em>Ordnung der Mennonitischen Gemeinschaft, </em>adopted and printed by the [[East Pennsylvania Conference of the Mennonite Church|Oberholtzer group]] in 1848, said in the section <em>Von den Aemtern, </em>"Die Aemter unserer Gemeinschaft sind dreierlei: Erstens, Das Amt der Bestätigten oder Bischöfe; Zweitens, Das Amt der gemeinen Lehrer oder Prediger; Drittens, Das Amt der Vorsteher oder Diaconen. Niemand kann zum Bestätigten oder Bischof gewählt werden . . . . " [[Oberholtzer, John H. (1809-1895)|John H. Oberholtzer]] himself, though ordained to the office after he left the old church, assumed the title of "bishop," as was clearly indicated by the title of his 1860 book, <em>Der Wahre Charakter von J. H. Oberholtzer, Prediger und Bischof . .</em> . , and the obituary article about him which appeared in the 1896 <em>Mennonite Year Book and Almanac </em>called him bishop and told of his "ordination to the office of bishop" in 1847. A list of ordained men of the [[Mennonite Conference of Ontario and Quebec|Ontario Mennonite Conference]] (MC) printed about 1853 listed "bishops, ministers, and deacons," and the printed 1864 German minutes of that conference use the German term "Bischöfe." (This conference had strong connections with the Franconia Conference, many of its families having emigrated from that area to Ontario 1780-1820.)
 It is possible that the use of "bishop" was unintentionally promoted by the [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht Confession]] of 1632 (first German edition 1664, first English edition 1712 in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] and 1727 in Philadelphia), which used the term "bisschop" (Dutch), "Bischof" (German), as well as "oudste," "Aeltester," and "elder," and which was adopted as the official confession of the Pennsylvania Mennonites in 1725. At any rate, it seems clear that the Pennsylvania Mennonites as early as 1845 were using "bishop" in both English and German, and reserved "Aeltester" as the German word for "deacon." In view of the traditionalism of this group, it is most probable that this usage goes back into the 18th century at least. The Pennsylvania Amish and their descendants must have used "Bischof" (and more recently "Bishop") in the German for almost as long.
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 The full servant, however, was often simply the congregation's leader, and not a "bishop," in the sense of having oversight over a district of congregations. In some area conferences, e.g., [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]], one "full servant" could, and often did, have oversight over several congregations that had developed out of the various meetingplaces of what earlier had been a single congregation.
-In other area conferences, e.g., Franklin, [[LMC: A Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches|Lancaster]], and [[Virginia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Virginia]], the idea of bishop as having official oversight over a definite district has a more formal and long-standing tradition that probably shows a more direct influence of the Low-Country Mennonite pattern as established in the time of Menno Simons. These same conferences -- Franklin, Lancaster, and Virginia -- still (1999) maintain a formal bishop's office, including bishop districts. A few other independent conferences also fit in here, such as the Cumberland Valley Mennonite Church, the [[Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church|Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church]], the [[Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship|Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship]], and the [[Southeastern Mennonite Conference|Southeastern Mennonite Conference]]. Most Old Order Mennonite groups in [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia (USA)|Virginia]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], and [[Missouri (USA)|Missouri]] also fit this scheme, again probably due to the Low-Country Mennonite influence. This came, most likely, through Jakob Amman's overt interest in Menno Simons and Dirk Philips and their approach to church government. Later, the [[Old Order Amish]] generally rejected the bishop district idea, having instead only a <em>volliger Diene(r)</em> (full servant) with [[Authority|authority]] to serve the interests of one congregation only.
+In other area conferences, e.g., Franklin, [[LMC: a Fellowship of Anabaptist Churches|Lancaster]], and [[Virginia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Virginia]], the idea of bishop as having official oversight over a definite district has a more formal and long-standing tradition that probably shows a more direct influence of the Low-Country Mennonite pattern as established in the time of Menno Simons. These same conferences -- Franklin, Lancaster, and Virginia -- still (1999) maintain a formal bishop's office, including bishop districts. A few other independent conferences also fit in here, such as the Cumberland Valley Mennonite Church, the [[Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church|Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church]], the [[Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship|Mid-Atlantic Mennonite Fellowship]], and the [[Southeastern Mennonite Conference|Southeastern Mennonite Conference]]. Most Old Order Mennonite groups in [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia (USA)|Virginia]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], and [[Missouri (USA)|Missouri]] also fit this scheme, again probably due to the Low-Country Mennonite influence. This came, most likely, through Jakob Amman's overt interest in Menno Simons and Dirk Philips and their approach to church government. Later, the [[Old Order Amish]] generally rejected the bishop district idea, having instead only a <em>volliger Diene(r)</em> (full servant) with [[Authority|authority]] to serve the interests of one congregation only.
 Since the 1960s, almost all other area conferences of the larger Mennonite groups have moved away from the idea of bishop; in the 1980s the term overseer became the term used for the area-conference coordinator for most such conferences -- a term more in line with the traditional (modified) [[Congregationalism|congregationalism]] of most Anabaptist and Mennonite groups over the centuries.

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 Bishop is the title used by several groups of Mennonites in America for the highest ministerial office. The corresponding term in Dutch was <em>oudste </em>(although <em>bisschop </em>was also occasionally used) and in German <em>Aeltester, </em>English translation "[[Elder (Ältester)|elder]]." In the [[United States of America|United States]] those groups which descended from European immigrants who arrived after 1800 from [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Germany|Germany]], or [[Russia|Russia]], and did not affiliate with the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] whose foundation and organization was laid by immigrants from Germany and Switzerland in the 18th century, used almost exclusively the German term "Aeltester" and later its English form "elder," but those who affiliated with the Mennonite Church adopted the term "bishop." However, in [[Canada|Canada]], the older [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference]] congregations, the [[Bergthal Mennonites|Bergthal]], the [[Kleine Gemeinde|Kleine Gemeinde]], and similar conservative groups used "bishop" freely in their English usage. The [[Eastern District Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Eastern District Conference]] of the General Conference Mennonite Church, having originated in 1847-1848 in a schism from the Mennonite Church (MC) in Eastern [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], wavered, first using "bishop," but later after affiliation with the newer immigrant groups of the General Conference Church, adopted "elder." The following [[United States of America|United States]] groups (and their Canadian congregations) used "bishop" exclusively: Mennonites (MC), [[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonites]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Conservative Mennonite Conference|Conservative Amish]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], and smaller related groups. Vos claims "bisschop" was the term first used by [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips]] and [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] in the beginning in Holland, later supplanted by "oudste."
-The history of the usage of the term "bishop" has not been fully traced. Without doubt the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] in the United States was responsible for its introduction into the English ecclesiastical terminology of Mennonites, but exactly when this occurred is not certain. [[Herr, Christian (1780-1853)|Christian Herr]], a leader of the [[Lancaster Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Lancaster Mennonite Conference]], wrote a brief article on the Mennonites for [[Rupp, Israel Daniel (1803-1878)|I. D. Rupp's]] <em>History of all the Religious Denominations in the United States </em>(Harrisburg, 1848), in which he speaks of the [[Ministry (Switzerland, South Germany, France, North America)|threefold ministry]] of the Mennonites as "bishops, elders or ministers, and deacons." An 1849 remonstrance by the officials of the [[Deep Run  Mennonite Church East (Perkasie, Pennsylvania, USA)|Deep Run Mennonite (MC) congregation]] of the [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]] against the organization of an Oberholtzer congregation at that place, addressed to the [[Bucks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bucks County]] Court, was signed by two "bishops," two "ministers," and two "elders," where the title "elder" meant "deacon" (J. C. Wenger, <em>History of the Mennonites of the Fran</em><em>conia Conference, </em>Telford, 1938, 363). The <em>Ord</em><em>nung der Mennonitischen Gemeinschaft, </em>adopted and printed by the [[East Pennsylvania Conference of the Mennonite Church|Oberholtzer group]] in 1848, said in the section <em>Von den Aemtern, </em>"Die Aemter unserer Gemeinschaft sind dreierlei: Erstens, Das Amt der Bestätigten oder Bischöfe; Zweitens, Das Amt der gemeinen Lehrer oder Prediger; Drittens, Das Amt der Vorsteher oder Diaconen. Niemand kann zum Bestätigten oder Bischof gewählt werden . . . . " [[Oberholtzer, John H. (1809-1895)|John H. Oberholtzer]] himself, though ordained to the office after he left the old church, assumed the title of "bishop," as was clearly indicated by the title of his 1860 book, <em>Der Wahre Charakter von </em><em>J. </em><em>H. Oberholtzer, Prediger und Bischof . .</em> . , and the obituary article about him which appeared in the 1896 <em>Mennonite Year Book and Almanac </em>called him bishop and told of his "ordination to the office of bishop" in 1847. A list of ordained men of the [[Mennonite Conference of Ontario and Quebec|Ontario Mennonite Conference]] (MC) printed about 1853 listed "bishops, ministers, and deacons," and the printed 1864 German minutes of that conference use the German term "Bischöfe." (This conference had strong connections with the Franconia Conference, many of its families having emigrated from that area to Ontario 1780-1820.)
+The history of the usage of the term "bishop" has not been fully traced. Without doubt the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] in the United States was responsible for its introduction into the English ecclesiastical terminology of Mennonites, but exactly when this occurred is not certain. [[Herr, Christian (1780-1853)|Christian Herr]], a leader of the [[Lancaster Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Lancaster Mennonite Conference]], wrote a brief article on the Mennonites for [[Rupp, Israel Daniel (1803-1878)|I. D. Rupp's]] <em>History of all the Religious Denominations in the United States </em>(Harrisburg, 1848), in which he speaks of the [[Ministry (Switzerland, South Germany, France, North America)|threefold ministry]] of the Mennonites as "bishops, elders or ministers, and deacons." An 1849 remonstrance by the officials of the [[Deep Run  Mennonite Church East (Perkasie, Pennsylvania, USA)|Deep Run Mennonite (MC) congregation]] of the [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]] against the organization of an Oberholtzer congregation at that place, addressed to the [[Bucks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bucks County]] Court, was signed by two "bishops," two "ministers," and two "elders," where the title "elder" meant "deacon" (J. C. Wenger, <em>History of the Mennonites of the Franconia Conference, </em>Telford, 1938, 363). The <em>Ordnung der Mennonitischen Gemeinschaft, </em>adopted and printed by the [[East Pennsylvania Conference of the Mennonite Church|Oberholtzer group]] in 1848, said in the section <em>Von den Aemtern, </em>"Die Aemter unserer Gemeinschaft sind dreierlei: Erstens, Das Amt der Bestätigten oder Bischöfe; Zweitens, Das Amt der gemeinen Lehrer oder Prediger; Drittens, Das Amt der Vorsteher oder Diaconen. Niemand kann zum Bestätigten oder Bischof gewählt werden . . . . " [[Oberholtzer, John H. (1809-1895)|John H. Oberholtzer]] himself, though ordained to the office after he left the old church, assumed the title of "bishop," as was clearly indicated by the title of his 1860 book, <em>Der Wahre Charakter von J. H. Oberholtzer, Prediger und Bischof . .</em> . , and the obituary article about him which appeared in the 1896 <em>Mennonite Year Book and Almanac </em>called him bishop and told of his "ordination to the office of bishop" in 1847. A list of ordained men of the [[Mennonite Conference of Ontario and Quebec|Ontario Mennonite Conference]] (MC) printed about 1853 listed "bishops, ministers, and deacons," and the printed 1864 German minutes of that conference use the German term "Bischöfe." (This conference had strong connections with the Franconia Conference, many of its families having emigrated from that area to Ontario 1780-1820.)
 It is possible that the use of "bishop" was unintentionally promoted by the [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht Confession]] of 1632 (first German edition 1664, first English edition 1712 in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] and 1727 in Philadelphia), which used the term "bisschop" (Dutch), "Bischof" (German), as well as "oudste," "Aeltester," and "elder," and which was adopted as the official confession of the Pennsylvania Mennonites in 1725. At any rate, it seems clear that the Pennsylvania Mennonites as early as 1845 were using "bishop" in both English and German, and reserved "Aeltester" as the German word for "deacon." In view of the traditionalism of this group, it is most probable that this usage goes back into the 18th century at least. The Pennsylvania Amish and their descendants must have used "Bischof" (and more recently "Bishop") in the German for almost as long.
-There is no evidence that "Aeltester" was regularly used for "bishop" by either the Amish or Mennonite groups of [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] (and their European Swiss, Alsatian, and South German ancestors). The corresponding German terms which they used were <em>Bestätigter Diener </em>(confirmed minister), <em>Völ</em><em>liger Diener, </em>or <em>Voller Diener </em>(full minister). It is probable that "oudste" or "Aeltester" (elder) was a more characteristic Dutch-North German-Prussian-Russian term and only in the 19th century came to be used in South [[Germany|Germany]], [[France|France]], and Switzerland, where it has apparently been the standard term for over a century. However, the <em>[[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|Concept ]]</em>[[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|<em>of Cologne</em>]] (1591), printed in Holland in 1660, the oldest of the Dutch-Northwest German confessions, used the term bishop in the following sentence (p. 110), <em>Een Bisschop of Leeraer sal </em><em>onstraffelijck sijn.</em>
+There is no evidence that "Aeltester" was regularly used for "bishop" by either the Amish or Mennonite groups of [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] (and their European Swiss, Alsatian, and South German ancestors). The corresponding German terms which they used were <em>Bestätigter Diener </em>(confirmed minister), <em>Völliger Diener, </em>or <em>Voller Diener </em>(full minister). It is probable that "oudste" or "Aeltester" (elder) was a more characteristic Dutch-North German-Prussian-Russian term and only in the 19th century came to be used in South [[Germany|Germany]], [[France|France]], and Switzerland, where it has apparently been the standard term for over a century. However, the <em>[[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|Concept ]]</em>[[Concept of Cologne (Anabaptists, 1591)|<em>of Cologne</em>]] (1591), printed in Holland in 1660, the oldest of the Dutch-Northwest German confessions, used the term bishop in the following sentence (p. 110), <em>Een Bisschop of Leeraer sal onstraffelijck sijn.</em>
 The <em>Minister's Manual </em>of the Mennonite Church (MC), first published by [[Funk, John Fretz (1835-1930)|John F. Funk]] at Elkhart in 1890, defined the office of bishop in the following paragraph: