Apocalypticism - Revision history

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Belk, Fred B. "The emergence of Millennialism among the Russian Mennonites." Mennonite Quarterly Review 49 (1975): 217-225.

Belk, Fred B. "The emergence of Millennialism among the Russian Mennonites." Mennonite Quarterly Review 49 (1975): 217-225.

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Coffman, J. S. Outlines and ~~~~Notes Used at the Bible Conference . . . Elkhart, IN, 1898: 4, 5.
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Coffman, J. S. Outlines and Notes Used at the Bible Conference . . . Elkhart, IN, 1898: 4, 5.

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Denner, Jakob. Christliche and erbauliche ~~Betrachtungen~~. Philadelphia, 1860.
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Denner, Jakob. Christliche and erbauliche Betrachtungen. Philadelphia, 1860.

Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Soziale Unruhen and apokalyptische Visionen im Zeitalter der Reformation. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1979; English trans. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1980.

Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Soziale Unruhen and apokalyptische Visionen im Zeitalter der Reformation. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1979; English trans. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1980.

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~~~~[There is a shift in perspective between the two articles below; read them in the context of their time.]~~~~
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'''''[There is a shift in perspective between the two articles below; read them in the context of their time.]'''''

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~~<h3>~~1953 Article~~</h3> <h4>~~Historical Overview~~</h4>~~ Chiliasm, the doctrine of a thousand-year reign of Christ on earth following His second coming for His saints. The term comes from the Greek word for "thousand" and the chief [[New Testament|New Testament]] passage upon which the view is based is Revelation 20:1-10. Modern chiliasts base much of their teaching, however, upon a literal interpretation and application of [[Old Testament|Old Testament]] prophecies regarding the Jewish kingdom. The views of the Jewish apocalyptic books on the glory of the Messianic days also exerted some influence on the chiliasts of the second century Christian Church. Papias, for instance, quoted from Baruch 29 to show how fruitful the earth would be during the millennial reign of Christ.
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=1953 Article=

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==Historical Overview==

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Chiliasm, the doctrine of a thousand-year reign of Christ on earth following His second coming for His saints. The term comes from the Greek word for "thousand" and the chief [[New Testament|New Testament]] passage upon which the view is based is Revelation 20:1-10. Modern chiliasts base much of their teaching, however, upon a literal interpretation and application of [[Old Testament|Old Testament]] prophecies regarding the Jewish kingdom. The views of the Jewish apocalyptic books on the glory of the Messianic days also exerted some influence on the chiliasts of the second century Christian Church. Papias, for instance, quoted from Baruch 29 to show how fruitful the earth would be during the millennial reign of Christ.

In modern times the term "millennialism" or "premillennialism" is more commonly used instead of "chiliasm." The "pre" refers to the second coming of Christ as being "before" the establishment of the earthly kingdom. Postmillennialism holds that Christ will return after the kingdom of God had been realized spiritually. Amillennialism (also called nonmillennialism) holds that there will be no earthly kingdom at all and that there will be no golden age spiritually before the second coming of Christ.

In modern times the term "millennialism" or "premillennialism" is more commonly used instead of "chiliasm." The "pre" refers to the second coming of Christ as being "before" the establishment of the earthly kingdom. Postmillennialism holds that Christ will return after the kingdom of God had been realized spiritually. Amillennialism (also called nonmillennialism) holds that there will be no earthly kingdom at all and that there will be no golden age spiritually before the second coming of Christ.

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In [[Russia|Russia]] chiliasm found entrance only late in the 19th century and then almost exclusively in the Mennonite Brethren group. [[Peters, Isaak (1826-1911)|Isaak Peters]], an elder in Russia before he came to America in 1874, where he was co-founder of the [[Fellowship of Evangelical Bible Churches|Evangelical Mennonite Brethren]] Church, and who was rated by [[Friesen, Peter Martin (1849-1914)|P. M. Friesen]] (Brüderschaft) as an authority in the old Mennonite literature and traditions, particularly in Russia, was quoted as writing in 1910 (Brüderschaft, 264) as follows: "Menno Simons never believed in the millennium, and whoever believes in it is no Mennonite." Friesen, himself an [[Allianz Gemeinden|Allianz-Mennonite]], described the situation among the Mennonites in Russia regarding chiliasm as follows: "That chiliasm is contrary to old-Mennonite teaching is certain . . . . We pass over the question of the Biblical justification of this teaching; only we have asked ourselves hundreds of times, What benefit has the manner in which this teaching has been promoted among us in the last half century and particularly in the last eight years, brought us in connection with our sanctification (Unsere Heili gang durch and durch) and our greater effectiveness in being the salt of the earth and light of the world? . . . We ourselves have no positive answer to give." [[Dirks, Heinrich (1842-1915)|Heinrich Dirks]] (1842-1915), an influential elder of Gnadenfeld (1881-1915), first Russian Mennonite missionary (1869-81), not an Mennonite Brethren, apparently held to a mild form of chiliasm. For the history and present status of chiliasm in the Mennonite Brethren group see the account immediately below. -- JCW

In [[Russia|Russia]] chiliasm found entrance only late in the 19th century and then almost exclusively in the Mennonite Brethren group. [[Peters, Isaak (1826-1911)|Isaak Peters]], an elder in Russia before he came to America in 1874, where he was co-founder of the [[Fellowship of Evangelical Bible Churches|Evangelical Mennonite Brethren]] Church, and who was rated by [[Friesen, Peter Martin (1849-1914)|P. M. Friesen]] (Brüderschaft) as an authority in the old Mennonite literature and traditions, particularly in Russia, was quoted as writing in 1910 (Brüderschaft, 264) as follows: "Menno Simons never believed in the millennium, and whoever believes in it is no Mennonite." Friesen, himself an [[Allianz Gemeinden|Allianz-Mennonite]], described the situation among the Mennonites in Russia regarding chiliasm as follows: "That chiliasm is contrary to old-Mennonite teaching is certain . . . . We pass over the question of the Biblical justification of this teaching; only we have asked ourselves hundreds of times, What benefit has the manner in which this teaching has been promoted among us in the last half century and particularly in the last eight years, brought us in connection with our sanctification (Unsere Heili gang durch and durch) and our greater effectiveness in being the salt of the earth and light of the world? . . . We ourselves have no positive answer to give." [[Dirks, Heinrich (1842-1915)|Heinrich Dirks]] (1842-1915), an influential elder of Gnadenfeld (1881-1915), first Russian Mennonite missionary (1869-81), not an Mennonite Brethren, apparently held to a mild form of chiliasm. For the history and present status of chiliasm in the Mennonite Brethren group see the account immediately below. -- JCW

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~~<h4>~~ Chiliasm as accepted and taught in the Mennonite Brethren Church~~</h4>~~ This doctrine entered the [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren Church]] in [[Russia|Russia]] for the first time when a number of preachers from [[England|England]], [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], and other countries visited Mennonite Brethren churches and began to preach on that subject. Among them were Broadband and Baedecker from England, Stroeter from Germany, whose powerful preaching had great influence, and also a certain Widmer from Switzerland. This was the first time that this doctrine had been taught among the Mennonites of Russia, and quite a few of the leading brethren accepted it.
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==Chiliasm as accepted and taught in the Mennonite Brethren Church==

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This doctrine entered the [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren Church]] in [[Russia|Russia]] for the first time when a number of preachers from [[England|England]], [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], and other countries visited Mennonite Brethren churches and began to preach on that subject. Among them were Broadband and Baedecker from England, Stroeter from Germany, whose powerful preaching had great influence, and also a certain Widmer from Switzerland. This was the first time that this doctrine had been taught among the Mennonites of Russia, and quite a few of the leading brethren accepted it.

[[Reimer, Jacob Wilhelm (1860-1948)|Jakob W. Reimer]], preacher of [[Rückenau (Molotschna Mennonite Settlement, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Rückenau]], Russia, became a leading advocate of chiliasm. As an evangelist and Bible expositor of great fame among the Mennonites in Russia, he engaged himself in a thorough study of Daniel and Revelation. His booklet Der wundervolle Ratschluss Gottes mit der Menschheit (The Wonderful Plan of Salvation of God with Men), already in its fifth edition, may be taken as typical of the Mennonite Brethren position. A few quotations from it follow:

[[Reimer, Jacob Wilhelm (1860-1948)|Jakob W. Reimer]], preacher of [[Rückenau (Molotschna Mennonite Settlement, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Rückenau]], Russia, became a leading advocate of chiliasm. As an evangelist and Bible expositor of great fame among the Mennonites in Russia, he engaged himself in a thorough study of Daniel and Revelation. His booklet Der wundervolle Ratschluss Gottes mit der Menschheit (The Wonderful Plan of Salvation of God with Men), already in its fifth edition, may be taken as typical of the Mennonite Brethren position. A few quotations from it follow:

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</blockquote> Another paragraph follows, in which Reimer speaks about the Last Judgment, the "Great White Throne." "The 1,000-year Sabbath will come to an end, and God will put the whole world to another test. Satan will be released from his prison for a short period of time and will go out to seduce the nations. Many will follow his tempting voice and join him in his mad attempt to overthrow Christ, the King of Kings. . . . Then will come the final fulfillment of the glorious Plan of God's Salvation." This teaching has been unofficially accepted in the course of the years by the entire Mennonite Brethren Church. Today one would hardly find any congregation and very few individual members who would oppose the teaching on chiliasm as given above. The Conference of the Mennonite Brethren Church appointed a committee to revise its confession of faith. It is most probable that certain paragraphs will be added giving the chiliastic conception as to the coming of the Lord, the rapture of the church, the time of tribulation, the millennium, and the final events connected with the coming of the kingdom of God. -- HHJ

</blockquote> Another paragraph follows, in which Reimer speaks about the Last Judgment, the "Great White Throne." "The 1,000-year Sabbath will come to an end, and God will put the whole world to another test. Satan will be released from his prison for a short period of time and will go out to seduce the nations. Many will follow his tempting voice and join him in his mad attempt to overthrow Christ, the King of Kings. . . . Then will come the final fulfillment of the glorious Plan of God's Salvation." This teaching has been unofficially accepted in the course of the years by the entire Mennonite Brethren Church. Today one would hardly find any congregation and very few individual members who would oppose the teaching on chiliasm as given above. The Conference of the Mennonite Brethren Church appointed a committee to revise its confession of faith. It is most probable that certain paragraphs will be added giving the chiliastic conception as to the coming of the Lord, the rapture of the church, the time of tribulation, the millennium, and the final events connected with the coming of the kingdom of God. -- HHJ

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~~<h3>~~1989 Update~~</h3>~~ Apocalypticism is a stream of thought and a symbolic language, developed in Christianity from Jewish models, concerned to interpret the course of human history and to uncover (apokaluptein) the secrets of the end of history. From the beginning, Christians expected the early return of Christ in glory to judge the world. Christian apocalyptic literature, especially the book of Revelation, ensured the continuation of endtime expectation and unremitting attempts by virtually every generation to identify events of its time as those of the end. A central element in these speculations was the figure of the antichrist who was sometimes identified as a specific historical figure, sometimes serving as a corporate figure symbolizing all opposition to Christ. During the great struggle between pope and emperor beginning in the 11th century, both emperor and pope were identified as the antichrist, as also were the Saracens (Arabs) and the Turks. Since the 14th century, it became common in some circles to refer to the papacy as the antichrist.
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=1989 Update=

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Apocalypticism is a stream of thought and a symbolic language, developed in Christianity from Jewish models, concerned to interpret the course of human history and to uncover (apokaluptein) the secrets of the end of history. From the beginning, Christians expected the early return of Christ in glory to judge the world. Christian apocalyptic literature, especially the book of Revelation, ensured the continuation of endtime expectation and unremitting attempts by virtually every generation to identify events of its time as those of the end. A central element in these speculations was the figure of the antichrist who was sometimes identified as a specific historical figure, sometimes serving as a corporate figure symbolizing all opposition to Christ. During the great struggle between pope and emperor beginning in the 11th century, both emperor and pope were identified as the antichrist, as also were the Saracens (Arabs) and the Turks. Since the 14th century, it became common in some circles to refer to the papacy as the antichrist.

Hence [[Luther, Martin (1483-1546)|Martin Luther's]] use of the image was a standard component in an ongoing polemic against the corruptions of the papacy. Apocalyptic speculation and imagery in Reformation times was a continuation of earlier traditions. [[Müntzer, Thomas (1488/9-1525)|Thomas Müntzer]], more than any other person, served as a transmitter of apocalyptic expectation and imagery to the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]]. From him also come some of the more sensational elements, such as a sense of being an identifiable actor in the endtime scenario.

Hence [[Luther, Martin (1483-1546)|Martin Luther's]] use of the image was a standard component in an ongoing polemic against the corruptions of the papacy. Apocalyptic speculation and imagery in Reformation times was a continuation of earlier traditions. [[Müntzer, Thomas (1488/9-1525)|Thomas Müntzer]], more than any other person, served as a transmitter of apocalyptic expectation and imagery to the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]]. From him also come some of the more sensational elements, such as a sense of being an identifiable actor in the endtime scenario.

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Yoder, John H. Peace Without Eschatology? Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.

Yoder, John H. Peace Without Eschatology? Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.

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{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 557-560; v. 5, pp. 28-30|date=1989|a1_last=Wenger|a1_first=John C.~~, H.~~ H. ~~Janzen~~|~~a2_last~~=Klaassen|~~a2_first~~=Walter}}
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{{GAMEO_footer-3|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 557-560; v. 5, pp. 28-30|date=1989|a1_last=Wenger|a1_first=John C.|a2_last=Janzen|a2_first=Henry H.|a3_last=Klaassen|a3_first=Walter}}

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The more conservative groups of Mennonites, who have had little contact with modern theological influences, such as the [[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonites]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Conservative Mennonite Conference|Conservative Amish]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], and the conservative Manitoba groups, remained relatively untouched by modern chiliasm.

The more conservative groups of Mennonites, who have had little contact with modern theological influences, such as the [[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonites]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Conservative Mennonite Conference|Conservative Amish]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], and the conservative Manitoba groups, remained relatively untouched by modern chiliasm.

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The [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]], because of the variety of groups of differing origin constituting its membership, was somewhat less uniform in its teaching. In the ~~[[Statement of Doctrine (1941)|~~statement of faith adopted in 1941]], it is stated, "We believe in .. . His personal triumphant return." There is no further elaboration on this statement as to the nature of Christ's rule. Premillennialism has never been officially recognized as the position of the church, but the teaching of premillennial Bible schools and periodicals has had considerable influence upon the preaching of some ministers, and there are numerous premillennialists, including some outspoken dispensationalists. The [[Grace University (Omaha, Nebraska, USA)|Grace Bible Institute]] (now Grace University), founded in 1945 at Omaha, [[Nebraska (USA)|Nebraska]], largely General Conference, though actually inter-Mennonite in control, espoused premillennialism. There was considerable tension over the issue in some quarters.
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The [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]], because of the variety of groups of differing origin constituting its membership, was somewhat less uniform in its teaching. In the statement of faith adopted in 1941, it is stated, "We believe in .. . His personal triumphant return." There is no further elaboration on this statement as to the nature of Christ's rule. Premillennialism has never been officially recognized as the position of the church, but the teaching of premillennial Bible schools and periodicals has had considerable influence upon the preaching of some ministers, and there are numerous premillennialists, including some outspoken dispensationalists. The [[Grace University (Omaha, Nebraska, USA)|Grace Bible Institute]] (now Grace University), founded in 1945 at Omaha, [[Nebraska (USA)|Nebraska]], largely General Conference, though actually inter-Mennonite in control, espoused premillennialism. There was considerable tension over the issue in some quarters.

Only two American Mennonite bodies were officially committed to premillennialism in their adopted confessions of faith: the [[Fellowship of Evangelical Churches|Evangelical Mennonite Church]] (formerly Defenseless Mennonites), and the [[United Missionary Church|United Missionary Church]] (formerly Mennonite Brethren in Christ). The [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren Church]], the Evangelical Mennonite Church, and the [[Krimmer Mennonite Brethren|Krimmer Mennonite Brethren]] were almost solidly premillennial, though not officially committed.

Only two American Mennonite bodies were officially committed to premillennialism in their adopted confessions of faith: the [[Fellowship of Evangelical Churches|Evangelical Mennonite Church]] (formerly Defenseless Mennonites), and the [[United Missionary Church|United Missionary Church]] (formerly Mennonite Brethren in Christ). The [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren Church]], the Evangelical Mennonite Church, and the [[Krimmer Mennonite Brethren|Krimmer Mennonite Brethren]] were almost solidly premillennial, though not officially committed.

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In modern times the term "millennialism" or "premillennialism" is more commonly used instead of "chiliasm." The "pre" refers to the second coming of Christ as being "before" the establishment of the earthly kingdom. Postmillennialism holds that Christ will return after the kingdom of God had been realized spiritually. Amillennialism (also called nonmillennialism) holds that there will be no earthly kingdom at all and that there will be no golden age spiritually before the second coming of Christ.

In modern times the term "millennialism" or "premillennialism" is more commonly used instead of "chiliasm." The "pre" refers to the second coming of Christ as being "before" the establishment of the earthly kingdom. Postmillennialism holds that Christ will return after the kingdom of God had been realized spiritually. Amillennialism (also called nonmillennialism) holds that there will be no earthly kingdom at all and that there will be no golden age spiritually before the second coming of Christ.

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Among the early (2nd-5th centuries) adherents of chiliasm may be mentioned: Papias, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, [[Tertullian, Quintus Septimius Florens (ca. 160-ca. 222)|Tertullian]], Commodianus, Victorinus, and Lactantius. On the other hand, there is no trace of it in Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, Tatian, Athenagoras, or Theophilus; and it is specifically opposed by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Jerome, and Augustine. Typical of the chiliasm of A.D. 200 is Irenaeus: the world is to last 6,000 years, comparable to the six creative days, and then shall come the millennial "day" of 1,000 years, God's Sabbath. Near the end of the sixth day Antichrist will appear. At the end of the sixth day Christ will appear in glory and triumph over His enemies, and then reign on earth for one thousand years. During this time Jerusalem will be rebuilt and the earth will become very fruitful. Peace and righteousness will prevail. At the end of this millennium Christ will hold the judgment and effect the new creation. (For Irenaeus Christ's millennial reign did not have a Jewish character; it was not modern [[Dispensationalism|dispensationalism]].)
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Among the early (2nd-5th centuries) adherents of chiliasm may be mentioned: Papias, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, [[Tertullian, Quintus Septimius Florens (ca. 160-ca. 222)|Tertullian]], Commodianus, Victorinus, and Lactantius. On the other hand, there is no trace of it in Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, Tatian, Athenagoras, or Theophilus; and it is specifically opposed by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Jerome, and Augustine. Typical of the chiliasm of A.D. 200 is Irenaeus: the world is to last 6,000 years, comparable to the six creative days, and then shall come the millennial "day" of 1,000 years, God's Sabbath. Near the end of the sixth day Antichrist will appear. At the end of the sixth day Christ will appear in glory and triumph over His enemies, and then reign on earth for one thousand years. During this time Jerusalem will be rebuilt and the earth will become very fruitful. Peace and righteousness will prevail. At the end of this millennium Christ will hold the judgment and effect the new creation. (For Irenaeus Christ's millennial reign did not have a Jewish character; it was not modern [[Dispensationalism| dispensationalism]].)

Of the 40 early Church Fathers (not counting schismatics) who left writings, about eight held to chiliasm. By the fourth century the view was almost dead and remained so for a thousand years. All the leading reformers rejected chiliasm, as did the historic creeds of Christendom. Except for [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman]], only a few fringe figures of the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] movement were chiliastic; all the major leaders held to views which would now be called amillennial (nonmillennial). [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] explicitly rejected chiliasm (summary of relevant quotations in Ira D. Landis, The Faith of Our Fathers on Eschatology, Chap. I). There is no trace of chiliasm in any of the older Mennonite confessions of faith: [[Schleitheim Confession|Schleitheim]] (1527), [[C6653.html|Twisck]] (ca. 1617), the Dutch Mennonite deposition of 1626, [[Olive Branch Confession of Faith (1627)|Olive Branch]] (1627), Jan Cents (1630), [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht]] (1632), or Prussian (1660, 1678).

Of the 40 early Church Fathers (not counting schismatics) who left writings, about eight held to chiliasm. By the fourth century the view was almost dead and remained so for a thousand years. All the leading reformers rejected chiliasm, as did the historic creeds of Christendom. Except for [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman]], only a few fringe figures of the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] movement were chiliastic; all the major leaders held to views which would now be called amillennial (nonmillennial). [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] explicitly rejected chiliasm (summary of relevant quotations in Ira D. Landis, The Faith of Our Fathers on Eschatology, Chap. I). There is no trace of chiliasm in any of the older Mennonite confessions of faith: [[Schleitheim Confession|Schleitheim]] (1527), [[C6653.html|Twisck]] (ca. 1617), the Dutch Mennonite deposition of 1626, [[Olive Branch Confession of Faith (1627)|Olive Branch]] (1627), Jan Cents (1630), [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht]] (1632), or Prussian (1660, 1678).

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The nondispensational type of chiliasm was also held by a number of German religious writers and theologians of the 19th century: [[Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich (1740-1817) |Jung-Stilling]], Auberlen, [[Hahn, Johann Michael (1758-1819)|Hahn]], Stier, Ross, Oetinger, Rothe, Lange, Hofmann, Delitzsch, and Meyer. Most of the writers on systematic theology rejected chiliasm, while a number of leading exegetes accepted classic chiliasm but not dispensationalism.

The nondispensational type of chiliasm was also held by a number of German religious writers and theologians of the 19th century: [[Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich (1740-1817) |Jung-Stilling]], Auberlen, [[Hahn, Johann Michael (1758-1819)|Hahn]], Stier, Ross, Oetinger, Rothe, Lange, Hofmann, Delitzsch, and Meyer. Most of the writers on systematic theology rejected chiliasm, while a number of leading exegetes accepted classic chiliasm but not dispensationalism.

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As was mentioned above there is no trace of chiliasm in the first generation of the main line of the Anabaptists, whether Swiss, Dutch, or German, represented by such men as [[Grebel, Conrad (ca. 1498-1526)|Conrad Grebel]], [[Sattler, Michael (d. 1527)|Michael Sattler]], [[Langenmantel, Eitelhans (d. 1528)|Hans Langenmantel]], [[Marpeck, Pilgram (d. 1556)|Pilgram Marpeck]], [[Imbroich, Thomas von (1533-1558)|Thomas von Imbroich]], [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips,]] [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], [[Dirk Philips (1504-1568)|Dirk Philips]], [[Leenaert Bouwens (1515-1582)|Leenaert Bouwens]], and the Hutterites [[Hutter, Jakob (d. 1536)|Jakob Hutter]] and [[Riedemann, Peter (1506-1556)|Peter Riedemann]]. From many of these leaders we have tracts, books, or letters, which more or less clearly delineate their doctrinal position, and none of these leaders exhibits chiliastic views. For that one must go to such persons as [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman]] ([[Strasbourg (Alsace, France)|Strasbourg]], [[Emden (Niedersachsen, Germany)|Emden]], Holland), [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut]] ([[Augsburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg]], Bavaria), and the revolutionary [[Münster Anabaptists|Münsterite]] movement (a degenerate form of Melchiorism). Hut (d. 1527) expected Christ to return about 1530 and to set up a spiritual, though not a physical, kingdom. So far as is now known the chiliasm of Hut never was accepted by his fellow leaders and had no later influence. Melchior Hoffman (d. 1543), who became an Anabaptist of a unique type in 1530, was an ardent chiliast, and though he had no influence on the Swiss and was expressly repudiated by the [[Swiss Brethren|Swiss Brethren]] who took part in the Bern disputation of 1538, he had considerable influence in Northwest [[Germany|Germany]] (Emden, 1530) and Holland (1530-1533) and is responsible for the chiliasm which appeared there in the early years (up to 1540). His chiliasm finally found an outlet in the violent Münsterite movement (1534-1535), though he himself never advocated violence.
+
As was mentioned above there is no trace of chiliasm in the first generation of the main line of the Anabaptists, whether Swiss, Dutch, or German, represented by such men as [[Grebel, Conrad (ca. 1498-1526)|Conrad Grebel]], [[Sattler, Michael (d. 1527)|Michael Sattler]], [[Langenmantel, Eitelhans (d. 1528)|Hans Langenmantel]], [[Marpeck, Pilgram (d. 1556)|Pilgram Marpeck]], [[Imbroich, Thomas von (1533-1558)|Thomas von Imbroich]], [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips,]] [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], [[Dirk Philips (1504-1568)|Dirk Philips]], [[Leenaert Bouwens (1515-1582)|Leenaert Bouwens]], and the Hutterites [[Hutter, Jakob (d. 1536)|Jakob Hutter]] and [[Riedemann, Peter (1506-1556)|Peter Riedemann]]. From many of these leaders we have tracts, books, or letters, which more or less clearly delineate their doctrinal position, and none of these leaders exhibits chiliastic views. For that one must go to such persons as [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman ]] ([[Strasbourg (Alsace, France)|Strasbourg]], [[Emden (Niedersachsen, Germany)|Emden]], Holland), [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut]] ([[Augsburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg]], Bavaria), and the revolutionary [[Münster Anabaptists|Münsterite]] movement (a degenerate form of Melchiorism). Hut (d. 1527) expected Christ to return about 1530 and to set up a spiritual, though not a physical, kingdom. So far as is now known the chiliasm of Hut never was accepted by his fellow leaders and had no later influence. Melchior Hoffman (d. 1543), who became an Anabaptist of a unique type in 1530, was an ardent chiliast, and though he had no influence on the Swiss and was expressly repudiated by the [[Swiss Brethren|Swiss Brethren]] who took part in the Bern disputation of 1538, he had considerable influence in Northwest [[Germany|Germany]] (Emden, 1530) and Holland (1530-1533) and is responsible for the chiliasm which appeared there in the early years (up to 1540). His chiliasm finally found an outlet in the violent Münsterite movement (1534-1535), though he himself never advocated violence.

The Philips brothers and Menno Simons succeeded in purging the Obbenite-Mennonite brotherhood (1533-1544) of all Münsterism and chiliastic tendencies, and as a result of Münster the later Anabaptists and Mennonites became very careful in this matter. There seems to be no further trace of chiliasm among the Dutch, German, or Swiss Mennonites until at least two centuries later.

The Philips brothers and Menno Simons succeeded in purging the Obbenite-Mennonite brotherhood (1533-1544) of all Münsterism and chiliastic tendencies, and as a result of Münster the later Anabaptists and Mennonites became very careful in this matter. There seems to be no further trace of chiliasm among the Dutch, German, or Swiss Mennonites until at least two centuries later.

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The recognition of the vital part endtime expectation played in Anabaptism has in the past been obscured by the Mennonite abhorrence of the "excesses" of apocalyptic expectation. These manifestations are found in all segments of Anabaptism and cannot be seen as an aberration but as indicators of the intensity of the longing for vindication of the faithful witnesses and of retribution upon the godless. Followers of Hut and Hoffman believed themselves to be the executors of God's vengeance as described in Psalms 149. When the end did not come as expected and the fury of the persecution continued, Anabaptists adopted a stance of separation from all defilement, waiting quietly for the salvation of the Lord.

The recognition of the vital part endtime expectation played in Anabaptism has in the past been obscured by the Mennonite abhorrence of the "excesses" of apocalyptic expectation. These manifestations are found in all segments of Anabaptism and cannot be seen as an aberration but as indicators of the intensity of the longing for vindication of the faithful witnesses and of retribution upon the godless. Followers of Hut and Hoffman believed themselves to be the executors of God's vengeance as described in Psalms 149. When the end did not come as expected and the fury of the persecution continued, Anabaptists adopted a stance of separation from all defilement, waiting quietly for the salvation of the Lord.

−
There were to be periodic revivals of the certainty of the nearness of the end with the accompanying concern for the purity of the church. The 19th century in particular provides both specific cases of apocalyptic belief and action as well as an upsurge of apocalyptic consciousness in general. The [[French Revolution (1789-1799)|French Revolution]] and its aftermath (1789-1815) were interpreted by German Pietists as the beginning of the rule of the antichrist. This interpretation profoundly influenced Mennonites in [[Russia|Russia]] through the preaching of Eduard Wüst and contributed to the emergence of the [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren]]. A few decades later, under the influence of the writings of [[Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich (1740-1817) |Jung-Stilling]] and S. G. C. Clöter, a group of Mennonites from the Trakt ([[Am Trakt Mennonite Settlement (Samara Oblast, Russia)|Am Trakt]]) and [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna]]settlements left under the leadership of [[Epp, Claas (1838-1913)|Claas Epp]] for Central Asia ([[Asiatic Russia|Asiatic Russia]]), there to await the second coming of Christ. Radical separation from the world and the determination to keep God's little flock pure were fundamental features of these events. Similar influences prompted some Mennonites to join the [[Temple Society|Templer movement]] which was related to the place of the Jews and their homeland in the endtime events.
+
There were to be periodic revivals of the certainty of the nearness of the end with the accompanying concern for the purity of the church. The 19th century in particular provides both specific cases of apocalyptic belief and action as well as an upsurge of apocalyptic consciousness in general. The [[French Revolution (1789-1799)|French Revolution]] and its aftermath (1789-1815) were interpreted by German Pietists as the beginning of the rule of the antichrist. This interpretation profoundly influenced Mennonites in [[Russia|Russia]] through the preaching of Eduard Wüst and contributed to the emergence of the [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren]]. A few decades later, under the influence of the writings of [[Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich (1740-1817) |Jung-Stilling]] and S. G. C. Clöter, a group of Mennonites from the Trakt ([[Am Trakt Mennonite Settlement (Samara Oblast, Russia)|Am Trakt]]) and [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna ]]settlements left under the leadership of [[Epp, Claas (1838-1913)|Claas Epp]] for Central Asia ([[Asiatic Russia|Asiatic Russia]]), there to await the second coming of Christ. Radical separation from the world and the determination to keep God's little flock pure were fundamental features of these events. Similar influences prompted some Mennonites to join the [[Temple Society|Templer movement]] which was related to the place of the Jews and their homeland in the endtime events.

North American Mennonites too were caught up in the excitement of apocalyptic expectation which, primarily in the form of premillennialism ([[Dispensationalism|Dispensationalism]]), was part of the Fundamentalist reaction to the optimistic liberalism of the turn of the 20th century. Mennonite support for popular radio and television preachers beginning in the 1950s produced a Mennonite literary response setting forth a restrained and sober form of endtime expectation. It is possible that the deliberate revival and enforcement of plain [[Dress|dress]] and the prayer veil in the Mennonite Church (MC) in the early 1900s were evidence that the original Anabaptist tradition of the call to perfection to be ready for the returning Bridegroom was alive and well.

North American Mennonites too were caught up in the excitement of apocalyptic expectation which, primarily in the form of premillennialism ([[Dispensationalism|Dispensationalism]]), was part of the Fundamentalist reaction to the optimistic liberalism of the turn of the 20th century. Mennonite support for popular radio and television preachers beginning in the 1950s produced a Mennonite literary response setting forth a restrained and sober form of endtime expectation. It is possible that the deliberate revival and enforcement of plain [[Dress|dress]] and the prayer veil in the Mennonite Church (MC) in the early 1900s were evidence that the original Anabaptist tradition of the call to perfection to be ready for the returning Bridegroom was alive and well.

Line 111: Line 111:

Hamilton, Floyd E. The Basis of Millennial Faith. Grand Rapids, 1942.

Hamilton, Floyd E. The Basis of Millennial Faith. Grand Rapids, 1942.

−
Händiges, Emil. "Chiliasmus." Mennonitisches Lexikon, eds. Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe; Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 342-347.
+
Händiges, Emil. "Chiliasmus." Mennonitisches Lexikon, eds. Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 342-347.

Janzen, Waldemar. "The Great Trakt: Episode or Paradigm." Mennonite Quarterly Review 51 (1977): 127-39.

Janzen, Waldemar. "The Great Trakt: Episode or Paradigm." Mennonite Quarterly Review 51 (1977): 127-39.

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See also [[Biblical Interpretation|Biblical Interpretation]]; [[Ordinances|Ordinances]]; [[Prophecy|Prophecy]]

See also [[Biblical Interpretation|Biblical Interpretation]]; [[Ordinances|Ordinances]]; [[Prophecy|Prophecy]]

−

−

= Bibliography =

= Bibliography =

"Apokalyptik " in Die Religion in Geschichte and Gegenwart, 3rd ed. (Tübingen: Mohr, 1957) 1: 46372.

"Apokalyptik " in Die Religion in Geschichte and Gegenwart, 3rd ed. (Tübingen: Mohr, 1957) 1: 46372.

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Yoder, John H. Peace Without Eschatology? Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.

Yoder, John H. Peace Without Eschatology? Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.

−

−

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{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 557-560; v. 5, pp. 28-30|date=1989|a1_last=Wenger|a1_first=John C., H. H. Janzen|a2_last=Klaassen|a2_first=Walter}}

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	Yoder, John H. <em>Peace Without Eschatology?</em> Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.		Yoder, John H. <em>Peace Without Eschatology?</em> Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.
	{{GAMEO_footer-3\|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 557-560; v. 5, pp. 28-30\|date=1989\|a1_last=Wenger\|a1_first=John C.\|a2_last=Janzen\|a2_first=Henry H.\|a3_last=Klaassen\|a3_first=Walter}}		{{GAMEO_footer-3\|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 557-560; v. 5, pp. 28-30\|date=1989\|a1_last=Wenger\|a1_first=John C.\|a2_last=Janzen\|a2_first=Henry H.\|a3_last=Klaassen\|a3_first=Walter}}
		+	[[Category:Theology]]

@@ Line 25: / Line 25: @@
 Around the turn of the present century Mennonites in many lands, Switzerland, [[France|France]], Germany, and America, began to experience their first contact with millennialism in their own ranks. Young men attended Bible schools where premillennialism was taught, and returned home with "keys" to the interpretation of Daniel and Revelation, both of which are books containing much figurative and symbolical material which had not been much studied or taught by Mennonites, even by the ministers, before that time. (There were exceptions of course: [[Twisck, Pieter Jansz (1565-1636)|P. J. Twisck]], 1565-1636, had written an exposition of Revelation 20, and [[Denner, Jakob (1659-1746)|Jakob Denner]], 1659-1746, had included a sermon on this passage in his book of sermons entitled <em>Betrachtungen, </em>1730. [[Funck, Heinrich (d. 1760)|Heinrich Funck]] [d. 1760], a Mennonite bishop in the [[Franconia Mennonite Conference (Mennonite Church USA)|Franconia Conference]], had also written an exposition of the law and its fulfillment in Christ, entitled <em>Eine Restitution oder Erklärung einiger Hauptpunkte des Gesetzes, </em>which was published in 1763 in Philadelphia.)
-In the 1890s a number of American Mennonite (MC) young men studied at Moody Bible Institute in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]] and became teachers of the premillennial view in their branch. Among them were [[Wenger, Amos Daniel (1867-1935)|A. D. Wenger]] (1867-1935), [[Loucks, Aaron (1864-1945)|Aaron Loucks]] (1864-1945), E. J. Berkey (1874-1954), [[Coffman, Samuel Frederick (1872-1954)|S. F. Coffman (1872-1954)]], and A. I. Yoder (1866-1932). A. D. Wenger was the first to teach premillennialism in his branch of the Mennonite brotherhood (MC), according to his own claim, apparently at a Bible conference held at [[Johnstown (Pennsylvania, USA)|Johnstown, PA]], 27 December 1897-7 January 1898. Of Wenger's lectures the venerable [[Coffman, John S. (1848-1899)|John S. Coffman]] wrote (with restraint and charity): "A. D. Wenger, of [[Millersville (Pennsylvania, USA)|Millersville, Pa.]], gave a connected lecture on Unfulfilled Prophecies. The prophecies more especially noticed are those by the Old Testament prophets, and of Christ as given in the New Testament, relative to the second coming of the Lord, the resurrection of the saints, the millennium, the loosing of Satan, and the last judgment. The manner in which this was treated was somewhat new, and is by no means the generally accepted view of the Mennonite people. The Scriptures do teach to a certainty that Christ is coming again; and it is certainly profitable to study that fact so as to be ready when He does come. There are, however, uncertainties concerning the literal application of the few passages relative to the millennium that make it unsafe to go into speculation concerning it as many speakers and writers have done." In addition to [[Wenger, Amos Daniel (1867-1935)|A. D. Wenger]], the following influential premillenarians of the Mennonite Church (MC) should be mentioned: [[Ressler, Jacob Andrews (1867-1936)|J. A. Ressler]] (1867-1936), [[Smith, Jacob Brubaker (1870-1951)|J. B. Smith (1870-1951)]], [[Brunk, George R. (1871-1938)|George R. Brunk]] (1871-1938), John Thut (1879-1950), and [[Mosemann, John Heer (1877-1938)|John H. Mosemann (1877-1938)]]. Among the leaders in the same period who held the amillennial view in the Mennonite Church were [[Funk, John Fretz (1835-1930)|John F. Funk (1835-1930)]], [[Brenneman, John M. (1816-1895)|John M. Brenneman]] (1816-1895), [[Coffman, John S. (1848-1899)|John S. Coffman]] (1848-1899), [[Kauffman, Daniel (1865-1944)|Daniel Kauffman (1865-1944)]], [[Horsch, John (1867-1941)|John Horsch]] (1867-1941), [[Mack, Andreas (1836-1917)|Andrew S. Mack]] (1836-1917), [[Yoder, Abner G. (1879-1942)|Abner G. Yoder]] (1879-1942), and [[Frey, Elias L. (1856-1942)|E. L. Frey]] (1856-1942). The premillennial view made rapid progress in the (Old) Mennonite group only after World War I. In the 1950s probably nearly half of the (Old) Mennonites (MC) held this view. By the mid-20th century premillennialism was receding somewhat. The church never officially recognized or adopted premillennialism, except in two district conferences, whereas two district conferences prohibited this teaching directly. [[Dispensationalism|Dispensationalism]] never secured a hold in the group.
+In the 1890s a number of American Mennonite (MC) young men studied at Moody Bible Institute in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]] and became teachers of the premillennial view in their branch. Among them were [[Wenger, Amos Daniel (1867-1935)|A. D. Wenger]] (1867-1935), [[Loucks, Aaron (1864-1945)|Aaron Loucks]] (1864-1945), E. J. Berkey (1874-1954), [[Coffman, Samuel Frederick (1872-1954)|S. F. Coffman (1872-1954)]], and A. I. Yoder (1866-1932). A. D. Wenger was the first to teach premillennialism in his branch of the Mennonite brotherhood (MC), according to his own claim, apparently at a Bible conference held at [[Johnstown (Pennsylvania, USA)|Johnstown, PA]], 27 December 1897-7 January 1898. Of Wenger's lectures the venerable [[Coffman, John S. (1848-1899)|John S. Coffman]] wrote (with restraint and charity): "A. D. Wenger, of [[Millersville (Pennsylvania, USA)|Millersville, Pa.]], gave a connected lecture on Unfulfilled Prophecies. The prophecies more especially noticed are those by the Old Testament prophets, and of Christ as given in the New Testament, relative to the second coming of the Lord, the resurrection of the saints, the millennium, the loosing of Satan, and the last judgment. The manner in which this was treated was somewhat new, and is by no means the generally accepted view of the Mennonite people. The Scriptures do teach to a certainty that Christ is coming again; and it is certainly profitable to study that fact so as to be ready when He does come. There are, however, uncertainties concerning the literal application of the few passages relative to the millennium that make it unsafe to go into speculation concerning it as many speakers and writers have done." In addition to [[Wenger, Amos Daniel (1867-1935)|A. D. Wenger]], the following influential premillenarians of the Mennonite Church (MC) should be mentioned: [[Ressler, Jacob Andrews (1867-1936)|J. A. Ressler]] (1867-1936), [[Smith, Jacob Brubaker (1870-1951)|J. B. Smith (1870-1951)]], [[Brunk, George R. (1871-1938)|George R. Brunk]] (1871-1938), John Thut (1879-1950), and [[Mosemann, John Heer (1877-1938)|John H. Mosemann (1877-1938)]]. Among the leaders in the same period who held the amillennial view in the Mennonite Church were [[Funk, John Fretz (1835-1930)|John F. Funk (1835-1930)]], [[Brenneman, John M. (1816-1895)|John M. Brenneman]] (1816-1895), [[Coffman, John S. (1848-1899)|John S. Coffman]] (1848-1899), [[Kauffman, Daniel (1865-1944)|Daniel Kauffman (1865-1944)]], [[Horsch, John (1867-1941)|John Horsch]] (1867-1941), [[Mack, Andrew Stauffer (1836-1917)|Andrew S. Mack]] (1836-1917), [[Yoder, Abner G. (1879-1942)|Abner G. Yoder]] (1879-1942), and [[Frey, Elias L. (1856-1942)|E. L. Frey]] (1856-1942). The premillennial view made rapid progress in the (Old) Mennonite group only after World War I. In the 1950s probably nearly half of the (Old) Mennonites (MC) held this view. By the mid-20th century premillennialism was receding somewhat. The church never officially recognized or adopted premillennialism, except in two district conferences, whereas two district conferences prohibited this teaching directly. [[Dispensationalism|Dispensationalism]] never secured a hold in the group.
 The more conservative groups of Mennonites, who have had little contact with modern theological influences, such as the [[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonites]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Conservative Mennonite Conference|Conservative Amish]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], and the conservative Manitoba groups, remained relatively untouched by modern chiliasm.

@@ Line 91: / Line 91: @@
 Belk, Fred B. <em>The Great Trek of the Russian Mennonites to Central Asia 1880-1884. </em>Scottdale, 1976.
-Belk, Fred B. "The emergence of Millennialism among the Russian Mennonites." <em>Mennonite Quarterly Review</em> 49 (1975): 217-225.
+Belk, Fred B. "The emergence of Millennialism among the Russian Mennonites." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 49 (1975): 217-225.
 Coffman, J. S. <em>Outlines and Notes Used at the Bible Conference . . . </em>Elkhart, IN, 1898: 4, 5.
@@ Line 111: / Line 111: @@
 Ewert, David. <em>And Then Comes the End.</em> Scottdale, 1980.
-Gingerich, Melvin. "Change and Uniformity in Mennonite Attire." <em>Mennonite Quarterly Review</em> 40 (1966): 243-59.
+Gingerich, Melvin. "Change and Uniformity in Mennonite Attire." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 40 (1966): 243-59.
 Hamilton, Floyd E. <em>The Basis of Millennial Faith. </em>Grand Rapids, 1942.
@@ Line 117: / Line 117: @@
 Händiges, Emil. <em>"Chiliasmus." Mennonitisches Lexikon, </em>eds. Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. Frankfurt &amp; Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 342-347.
-Janzen, Waldemar. "The Great Trakt: Episode or Paradigm." <em>Mennonite Quarterly Review</em> 51 (1977): 127-39.
+Janzen, Waldemar. "The Great Trakt: Episode or Paradigm." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 51 (1977): 127-39.
 Klaassen, Martin. <em>Geschichte Wehrlosen Taufgesinnten Gemeinden.</em> Danzig: Edwin Groening, 1873.
@@ Line 125: / Line 125: @@
 Klaassen, Walter. "Visions of the End in Reformation Europe," in <em>Visions and Realities</em>, ed. Harry Loewen and Al Reimer. Winnipeg: Hyperion Press, 1985: 11-57.
-Klaassen, Walter. "A Belated Review: Martin Klaassen's 'Geschichte der Wehrlosen Taufgesinnten Gemeinden' Published in 1873" <em>Mennonite Quarterly Review</em>, 49 (1975): 43-52.
+Klaassen, Walter. "A Belated Review: Martin Klaassen's 'Geschichte der Wehrlosen Taufgesinnten Gemeinden' Published in 1873" ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'', 49 (1975): 43-52.
 Klaassen, Walter. "The Abomination of Desolation: Schwenckfeld's Christological Apocalyptic," in <em>Schwenckfeld and Early Schwenkfeldianism</em>, ed. Peter C Erb. Pennsburg: Schwenkfelder Library, 1986: 27-46.
@@ Line 137: / Line 137: @@
 Packull, Werner O. <em>Mysticism and the Early South German-Austrian Anabaptist Movement 1525-1531.</em> Scottdale, 1977, chapters 3, 4, 5.
-Packull, Werner O. "'A Hutterite Book of Medieval Origin' revisited: an examination of the Hutterite commentaries on the Book of Revelation and their Anabaptist origin," <em>Mennonite Quarterly Review</em> 56 (1982): 147-68.
+Packull, Werner O. "'A Hutterite Book of Medieval Origin' revisited: an examination of the Hutterite commentaries on the Book of Revelation and their Anabaptist origin," ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 56 (1982): 147-68.
 Packull, Werner O. "Anna Jans of Rotterdam: a historical investigation of an early Anabaptist heroine" <em>Archiv für Reformation Geschichte</em> 78 (1987): 147-73.

@@ Line 93: / Line 93: @@
 Belk, Fred B. "The emergence of Millennialism among the Russian Mennonites." <em>Mennonite Quarterly Review</em> 49 (1975): 217-225.
-Coffman, J. S. <em>Outlines and </em><em>Notes Used at the Bible Conference . . . </em>Elkhart, IN, 1898: 4, 5.
+Coffman, J. S. <em>Outlines and Notes Used at the Bible Conference . . . </em>Elkhart, IN, 1898: 4, 5.
-Denner, Jakob. <em>Christliche and erbauliche Be</em><em>trachtungen. </em>Philadelphia, 1860.
+Denner, Jakob. <em>Christliche and erbauliche Betrachtungen. </em>Philadelphia, 1860.
 Deppermann, Klaus. <em>Melchior Hoffman: Soziale Unruhen and apokalyptische Visionen im Zeitalter der Reformation.</em> Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1979; English trans. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1980.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 __FORCETOC__
 __TOC__
-<span class="visualHighlight">[There is a shift in perspective between the two articles below; read them in the context of their time.]</span>
+'''''[There is a shift in perspective between the two articles below; read them in the context of their time.]'''''
-<h3>1953 Article</h3> <h4>Historical Overview</h4> Chiliasm, the doctrine of a thousand-year reign of Christ on earth following His second coming for His saints. The term comes from the Greek word for "thousand" and the chief [[New Testament|New Testament]] passage upon which the view is based is Revelation 20:1-10. Modern chiliasts base much of their teaching, however, upon a literal interpretation and application of [[Old Testament|Old Testament]] prophecies regarding the Jewish kingdom. The views of the Jewish apocalyptic books on the glory of the Messianic days also exerted some influence on the chiliasts of the second century Christian Church. Papias, for instance, quoted from Baruch 29 to show how fruitful the earth would be during the millennial reign of Christ.
+=1953 Article=
 In modern times the term "millennialism" or "premillennialism" is more commonly used instead of "chiliasm." The "pre" refers to the second coming of Christ as being "before" the establishment of the earthly kingdom. Postmillennialism holds that Christ will return after the kingdom of God had been realized spiritually. Amillennialism (also called nonmillennialism) holds that there will be no earthly kingdom at all and that there will be no golden age spiritually before the second coming of Christ.
@@ Line 35: / Line 37: @@
 In [[Russia|Russia]] chiliasm found entrance only late in the 19th century and then almost exclusively in the Mennonite Brethren group. [[Peters, Isaak (1826-1911)|Isaak Peters]], an elder in Russia before he came to America in 1874, where he was co-founder of the [[Fellowship of Evangelical Bible Churches|Evangelical Mennonite Brethren]] Church, and who was rated by [[Friesen, Peter Martin (1849-1914)|P. M. Friesen]] <em>(Brüderschaft) </em>as an authority in the old Mennonite literature and traditions, particularly in Russia, was quoted as writing in 1910 <em>(Brüderschaft, </em>264) as follows: "Menno Simons never believed in the millennium, and whoever believes in it is no Mennonite." Friesen, himself an [[Allianz Gemeinden|Allianz-Mennonite]], described the situation among the Mennonites in Russia regarding chiliasm as follows: "That chiliasm is contrary to old-Mennonite teaching is certain . . . . We pass over the question of the Biblical justification of this teaching; only we have asked ourselves hundreds of times, What benefit has the manner in which this teaching has been promoted among us in the last half century and particularly in the last eight years, brought us in connection with our sanctification <em>(Unsere Heili gang durch and durch) </em>and our greater effectiveness in being the salt of the earth and light of the world? . . . We ourselves have no positive answer to give." [[Dirks, Heinrich (1842-1915)|Heinrich Dirks]] (1842-1915), an influential elder of Gnadenfeld (1881-1915), first Russian Mennonite missionary (1869-81), not an Mennonite Brethren, apparently held to a mild form of chiliasm. For the history and present status of chiliasm in the Mennonite Brethren group see the account immediately below. -- JCW
-<h4> Chiliasm as accepted and taught in the Mennonite Brethren Church</h4> This doctrine entered the [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren Church]] in [[Russia|Russia]] for the first time when a number of preachers from [[England|England]], [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], and other countries visited Mennonite Brethren churches and began to preach on that subject. Among them were Broadband and Baedecker from England, Stroeter from Germany, whose powerful preaching had great influence, and also a certain Widmer from Switzerland. This was the first time that this doctrine had been taught among the Mennonites of Russia, and quite a few of the leading brethren accepted it.
+==Chiliasm as accepted and taught in the Mennonite Brethren Church==
 [[Reimer, Jacob Wilhelm (1860-1948)|Jakob W. Reimer]], preacher of [[Rückenau (Molotschna Mennonite Settlement, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Rückenau]], Russia, became a leading advocate of chiliasm. As an evangelist and Bible expositor of great fame among the Mennonites in Russia, he engaged himself in a thorough study of Daniel and Revelation. His booklet <em>Der wundervolle Ratschluss Gottes mit der Menschheit </em>(The Wonderful Plan of Salvation of God with Men), already in its fifth edition, may be taken as typical of the Mennonite Brethren position. A few quotations from it follow:
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 </blockquote> Another paragraph follows, in which Reimer speaks about the Last Judgment, the "Great White Throne." "The 1,000-year Sabbath will come to an end, and God will put the whole world to another test. Satan will be released from his prison for a short period of time and will go out to seduce the nations. Many will follow his tempting voice and join him in his mad attempt to overthrow Christ, the King of Kings. . . . Then will come the final fulfillment of the glorious Plan of God's Salvation." This teaching has been unofficially accepted in the course of the years by the entire Mennonite Brethren Church. Today one would hardly find any congregation and very few individual members who would oppose the teaching on chiliasm as given above. The Conference of the Mennonite Brethren Church appointed a committee to revise its confession of faith. It is most probable that certain paragraphs will be added giving the chiliastic conception as to the coming of the Lord, the rapture of the church, the time of tribulation, the millennium, and the final events connected with the coming of the kingdom of God. -- HHJ
-<h3>1989 Update</h3> Apocalypticism is a stream of thought and a symbolic language, developed in Christianity from Jewish models, concerned to interpret the course of human history and to uncover (<em>apokaluptein</em>) the secrets of the end of history. From the beginning, Christians expected the early return of Christ in glory to judge the world. Christian apocalyptic literature, especially the book of Revelation, ensured the continuation of endtime expectation and unremitting attempts by virtually every generation to identify events of its time as those of the end. A central element in these speculations was the figure of the antichrist who was sometimes identified as a specific historical figure, sometimes serving as a corporate figure symbolizing all opposition to Christ. During the great struggle between pope and emperor beginning in the 11th century, both emperor and pope were identified as the antichrist, as also were the Saracens (Arabs) and the Turks. Since the 14th century, it became common in some circles to refer to the papacy as the antichrist.
+=1989 Update=
 Hence [[Luther, Martin (1483-1546)|Martin Luther's]] use of the image was a standard component in an ongoing polemic against the corruptions of the papacy. Apocalyptic speculation and imagery in Reformation times was a continuation of earlier traditions. [[Müntzer, Thomas (1488/9-1525)|Thomas Müntzer]], more than any other person, served as a transmitter of apocalyptic expectation and imagery to the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]]. From him also come some of the more sensational elements, such as a sense of being an identifiable actor in the endtime scenario.

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	Yoder, John H. <em>Peace Without Eschatology?</em> Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.		Yoder, John H. <em>Peace Without Eschatology?</em> Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.
−	{{GAMEO_footer\|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 557-560; v. 5, pp. 28-30\|date=1989\|a1_last=Wenger\|a1_first=John C.~~, H.~~ H. ~~Janzen~~\|~~a2_last~~=Klaassen\|~~a2_first~~=Walter}}	+	{{GAMEO_footer-3\|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 557-560; v. 5, pp. 28-30\|date=1989\|a1_last=Wenger\|a1_first=John C.\|a2_last=Janzen\|a2_first=Henry H.\|a3_last=Klaassen\|a3_first=Walter}}

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 The more conservative groups of Mennonites, who have had little contact with modern theological influences, such as the [[Old Order Mennonites|Old Order Mennonites]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Conservative Mennonite Conference|Conservative Amish]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], and the conservative Manitoba groups, remained relatively untouched by modern chiliasm.
-The [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]], because of the variety of groups of differing origin constituting its membership, was somewhat less uniform in its teaching. In the [[Statement of Doctrine (1941)|statement of faith adopted in 1941]], it is stated, "We believe in .. . His personal triumphant return." There is no further elaboration on this statement as to the nature of Christ's rule. Premillennialism has never been officially recognized as the position of the church, but the teaching of premillennial Bible schools and periodicals has had considerable influence upon the preaching of some ministers, and there are numerous premillennialists, including some outspoken dispensationalists. The [[Grace University (Omaha, Nebraska, USA)|Grace Bible Institute]] (now Grace University), founded in 1945 at Omaha, [[Nebraska (USA)|Nebraska]], largely General Conference, though actually inter-Mennonite in control, espoused premillennialism. There was considerable tension over the issue in some quarters.
+The [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]], because of the variety of groups of differing origin constituting its membership, was somewhat less uniform in its teaching. In the statement of faith adopted in 1941, it is stated, "We believe in .. . His personal triumphant return." There is no further elaboration on this statement as to the nature of Christ's rule. Premillennialism has never been officially recognized as the position of the church, but the teaching of premillennial Bible schools and periodicals has had considerable influence upon the preaching of some ministers, and there are numerous premillennialists, including some outspoken dispensationalists. The [[Grace University (Omaha, Nebraska, USA)|Grace Bible Institute]] (now Grace University), founded in 1945 at Omaha, [[Nebraska (USA)|Nebraska]], largely General Conference, though actually inter-Mennonite in control, espoused premillennialism. There was considerable tension over the issue in some quarters.
 Only two American Mennonite bodies were officially committed to premillennialism in their adopted confessions of faith: the [[Fellowship of Evangelical Churches|Evangelical Mennonite Church]] (formerly Defenseless Mennonites), and the [[United Missionary Church|United Missionary Church]] (formerly Mennonite Brethren in Christ). The [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren Church]], the Evangelical Mennonite Church, and the [[Krimmer Mennonite Brethren|Krimmer Mennonite Brethren]] were almost solidly premillennial, though not officially committed.

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 In modern times the term "millennialism" or "premillennialism" is more commonly used instead of "chiliasm." The "pre" refers to the second coming of Christ as being "before" the establishment of the earthly kingdom. Postmillennialism holds that Christ will return after the kingdom of God had been realized spiritually. Amillennialism (also called nonmillennialism) holds that there will be no earthly kingdom at all and that there will be no golden age spiritually before the second coming of Christ.
-Among the early (2nd-5th centuries) adherents of chiliasm may be mentioned: Papias, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, [[Tertullian, Quintus Septimius Florens (ca. 160-ca. 222)|Tertullian]], Commodianus, Victorinus, and Lactantius. On the other hand, there is no trace of it in Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, Tatian, Athenagoras, or Theophilus; and it is specifically opposed by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Jerome, and Augustine. Typical of the chiliasm of A.D. 200 is Irenaeus: the world is to last 6,000 years, comparable to the six creative days, and then shall come the millennial "day" of 1,000 years, God's Sabbath. Near the end of the sixth day Antichrist will appear. At the end of the sixth day Christ will appear in glory and triumph over His enemies, and then reign on earth for one thousand years. During this time Jerusalem will be rebuilt and the earth will become very fruitful. Peace and righteousness will prevail. At the end of this millennium Christ will hold the judgment and effect the new creation. (For Irenaeus Christ's millennial reign did not have a Jewish character; it was not modern [[Dispensationalism|dispensationalism]].)
+Among the early (2nd-5th centuries) adherents of chiliasm may be mentioned: Papias, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, [[Tertullian, Quintus Septimius Florens (ca. 160-ca. 222)|Tertullian]], Commodianus, Victorinus, and Lactantius. On the other hand, there is no trace of it in Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, Tatian, Athenagoras, or Theophilus; and it is specifically opposed by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Jerome, and Augustine. Typical of the chiliasm of A.D. 200 is Irenaeus: the world is to last 6,000 years, comparable to the six creative days, and then shall come the millennial "day" of 1,000 years, God's Sabbath. Near the end of the sixth day Antichrist will appear. At the end of the sixth day Christ will appear in glory and triumph over His enemies, and then reign on earth for one thousand years. During this time Jerusalem will be rebuilt and the earth will become very fruitful. Peace and righteousness will prevail. At the end of this millennium Christ will hold the judgment and effect the new creation. (For Irenaeus Christ's millennial reign did not have a Jewish character; it was not modern [[Dispensationalism| dispensationalism]].)
 Of the 40 early Church Fathers (not counting schismatics) who left writings, about eight held to chiliasm. By the fourth century the view was almost dead and remained so for a thousand years. All the leading reformers rejected chiliasm, as did the historic creeds of Christendom. Except for [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman]], only a few fringe figures of the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] movement were chiliastic; all the major leaders held to views which would now be called amillennial (nonmillennial). [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] explicitly rejected chiliasm (summary of relevant quotations in Ira D. Landis, <em>The Faith of Our Fathers on Eschatology, </em>Chap. I). There is no trace of chiliasm in any of the older Mennonite confessions of faith: [[Schleitheim Confession|Schleitheim]] (1527), [[C6653.html|Twisck]] (ca. 1617), the Dutch Mennonite deposition of 1626, [[Olive Branch Confession of Faith (1627)|Olive Branch]] (1627), Jan Cents (1630), [[Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Mennonite, 1632)|Dordrecht]] (1632), or Prussian (1660, 1678).
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 The nondispensational type of chiliasm was also held by a number of German religious writers and theologians of the 19th century: [[Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich (1740-1817) |Jung-Stilling]], Auberlen, [[Hahn, Johann Michael (1758-1819)|Hahn]], Stier, Ross, Oetinger, Rothe, Lange, Hofmann, Delitzsch, and Meyer. Most of the writers on systematic theology rejected chiliasm, while a number of leading exegetes accepted classic chiliasm but not dispensationalism.
-As was mentioned above there is no trace of chiliasm in the first generation of the main line of the Anabaptists, whether Swiss, Dutch, or German, represented by such men as [[Grebel, Conrad (ca. 1498-1526)|Conrad Grebel]], [[Sattler, Michael (d. 1527)|Michael Sattler]], [[Langenmantel, Eitelhans (d. 1528)|Hans Langenmantel]], [[Marpeck, Pilgram (d. 1556)|Pilgram Marpeck]], [[Imbroich, Thomas von (1533-1558)|Thomas von Imbroich]], [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips,]] [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], [[Dirk Philips (1504-1568)|Dirk Philips]], [[Leenaert Bouwens (1515-1582)|Leenaert Bouwens]], and the Hutterites [[Hutter, Jakob (d. 1536)|Jakob Hutter]] and [[Riedemann, Peter (1506-1556)|Peter Riedemann]]. From many of these leaders we have tracts, books, or letters, which more or less clearly delineate their doctrinal position, and none of these leaders exhibits chiliastic views. For that one must go to such persons as [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman]] ([[Strasbourg (Alsace, France)|Strasbourg]], [[Emden (Niedersachsen, Germany)|Emden]], Holland), [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut]] ([[Augsburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg]], Bavaria), and the revolutionary [[Münster Anabaptists|Münsterite]] movement (a degenerate form of Melchiorism). Hut (d. 1527) expected Christ to return about 1530 and to set up a spiritual, though not a physical, kingdom. So far as is now known the chiliasm of Hut never was accepted by his fellow leaders and had no later influence. Melchior Hoffman (d. 1543), who became an Anabaptist of a unique type in 1530, was an ardent chiliast, and though he had no influence on the Swiss and was expressly repudiated by the [[Swiss Brethren|Swiss Brethren]] who took part in the Bern disputation of 1538, he had considerable influence in Northwest [[Germany|Germany]] (Emden, 1530) and Holland (1530-1533) and is responsible for the chiliasm which appeared there in the early years (up to 1540). His chiliasm finally found an outlet in the violent Münsterite movement (1534-1535), though he himself never advocated violence.
+As was mentioned above there is no trace of chiliasm in the first generation of the main line of the Anabaptists, whether Swiss, Dutch, or German, represented by such men as [[Grebel, Conrad (ca. 1498-1526)|Conrad Grebel]], [[Sattler, Michael (d. 1527)|Michael Sattler]], [[Langenmantel, Eitelhans (d. 1528)|Hans Langenmantel]], [[Marpeck, Pilgram (d. 1556)|Pilgram Marpeck]], [[Imbroich, Thomas von (1533-1558)|Thomas von Imbroich]], [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips,]] [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], [[Dirk Philips (1504-1568)|Dirk Philips]], [[Leenaert Bouwens (1515-1582)|Leenaert Bouwens]], and the Hutterites [[Hutter, Jakob (d. 1536)|Jakob Hutter]] and [[Riedemann, Peter (1506-1556)|Peter Riedemann]]. From many of these leaders we have tracts, books, or letters, which more or less clearly delineate their doctrinal position, and none of these leaders exhibits chiliastic views. For that one must go to such persons as [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman ]] ([[Strasbourg (Alsace, France)|Strasbourg]], [[Emden (Niedersachsen, Germany)|Emden]], Holland), [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut]] ([[Augsburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg]], Bavaria), and the revolutionary [[Münster Anabaptists|Münsterite]] movement (a degenerate form of Melchiorism). Hut (d. 1527) expected Christ to return about 1530 and to set up a spiritual, though not a physical, kingdom. So far as is now known the chiliasm of Hut never was accepted by his fellow leaders and had no later influence. Melchior Hoffman (d. 1543), who became an Anabaptist of a unique type in 1530, was an ardent chiliast, and though he had no influence on the Swiss and was expressly repudiated by the [[Swiss Brethren|Swiss Brethren]] who took part in the Bern disputation of 1538, he had considerable influence in Northwest [[Germany|Germany]] (Emden, 1530) and Holland (1530-1533) and is responsible for the chiliasm which appeared there in the early years (up to 1540). His chiliasm finally found an outlet in the violent Münsterite movement (1534-1535), though he himself never advocated violence.
 The Philips brothers and Menno Simons succeeded in purging the Obbenite-Mennonite brotherhood (1533-1544) of all Münsterism and chiliastic tendencies, and as a result of Münster the later Anabaptists and Mennonites became very careful in this matter. There seems to be no further trace of chiliasm among the Dutch, German, or Swiss Mennonites until at least two centuries later.
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 The recognition of the vital part endtime expectation played in Anabaptism has in the past been obscured by the Mennonite abhorrence of the "excesses" of apocalyptic expectation. These manifestations are found in all segments of Anabaptism and cannot be seen as an aberration but as indicators of the intensity of the longing for vindication of the faithful witnesses and of retribution upon the godless. Followers of Hut and Hoffman believed themselves to be the executors of God's vengeance as described in Psalms 149. When the end did not come as expected and the fury of the persecution continued, Anabaptists adopted a stance of separation from all defilement, waiting quietly for the salvation of the Lord.
-There were to be periodic revivals of the certainty of the nearness of the end with the accompanying concern for the purity of the church. The 19th century in particular provides both specific cases of apocalyptic belief and action as well as an upsurge of apocalyptic consciousness in general. The [[French Revolution (1789-1799)|French Revolution]] and its aftermath (1789-1815) were interpreted by German Pietists as the beginning of the rule of the antichrist. This interpretation profoundly influenced Mennonites in [[Russia|Russia]] through the preaching of Eduard Wüst and contributed to the emergence of the [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren]]. A few decades later, under the influence of the writings of [[Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich (1740-1817) |Jung-Stilling]] and S. G. C. Clöter, a group of Mennonites from the Trakt ([[Am Trakt Mennonite Settlement (Samara Oblast, Russia)|Am Trakt]]) and [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna]]settlements left under the leadership of [[Epp, Claas (1838-1913)|Claas Epp]] for Central Asia ([[Asiatic Russia|Asiatic Russia]]), there to await the second coming of Christ. Radical separation from the world and the determination to keep God's little flock pure were fundamental features of these events. Similar influences prompted some Mennonites to join the [[Temple Society|Templer movement]] which was related to the place of the Jews and their homeland in the endtime events.
+There were to be periodic revivals of the certainty of the nearness of the end with the accompanying concern for the purity of the church. The 19th century in particular provides both specific cases of apocalyptic belief and action as well as an upsurge of apocalyptic consciousness in general. The [[French Revolution (1789-1799)|French Revolution]] and its aftermath (1789-1815) were interpreted by German Pietists as the beginning of the rule of the antichrist. This interpretation profoundly influenced Mennonites in [[Russia|Russia]] through the preaching of Eduard Wüst and contributed to the emergence of the [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren]]. A few decades later, under the influence of the writings of [[Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich (1740-1817) |Jung-Stilling]] and S. G. C. Clöter, a group of Mennonites from the Trakt ([[Am Trakt Mennonite Settlement (Samara Oblast, Russia)|Am Trakt]]) and [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna ]]settlements left under the leadership of [[Epp, Claas (1838-1913)|Claas Epp]] for Central Asia ([[Asiatic Russia|Asiatic Russia]]), there to await the second coming of Christ. Radical separation from the world and the determination to keep God's little flock pure were fundamental features of these events. Similar influences prompted some Mennonites to join the [[Temple Society|Templer movement]] which was related to the place of the Jews and their homeland in the endtime events.
 North American Mennonites too were caught up in the excitement of apocalyptic expectation which, primarily in the form of premillennialism ([[Dispensationalism|Dispensationalism]]), was part of the Fundamentalist reaction to the optimistic liberalism of the turn of the 20th century. Mennonite support for popular radio and television preachers beginning in the 1950s produced a Mennonite literary response setting forth a restrained and sober form of endtime expectation. It is possible that the deliberate revival and enforcement of plain [[Dress|dress]] and the prayer veil in the Mennonite Church (MC) in the early 1900s were evidence that the original Anabaptist tradition of the call to perfection to be ready for the returning Bridegroom was alive and well.
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 Hamilton, Floyd E. <em>The Basis of Millennial Faith. </em>Grand Rapids, 1942.
-Händiges, Emil. <em>"Chiliasmus." Mennonitisches Lexikon, </em>eds. Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. Frankfurt &amp; Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe; Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 342-347.
+Händiges, Emil. <em>"Chiliasmus." Mennonitisches Lexikon, </em>eds. Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. Frankfurt &amp; Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 342-347.
 Janzen, Waldemar. "The Great Trakt: Episode or Paradigm." <em>Mennonite Quarterly Review</em> 51 (1977): 127-39.

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 See also [[Biblical Interpretation|Biblical Interpretation]]; [[Ordinances|Ordinances]]; [[Prophecy|Prophecy]]
 = Bibliography =
 "Apokalyptik " in <em>Die Religion in Geschichte and Gegenwart</em>, 3rd ed. (Tübingen: Mohr, 1957) 1: 46372.
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 Yoder, John H. <em>Peace Without Eschatology?</em> Concern Reprint. Scottdale: MPH, 1959.
 {{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 557-560; v. 5, pp. 28-30|date=1989|a1_last=Wenger|a1_first=John C., H. H. Janzen|a2_last=Klaassen|a2_first=Walter}}