GAMEO - User contributions [en]

Divorce and Remarriage

2025-06-08T14:44:40Z

JoeSpringer: /* Bibliography */ Corrected title and publication date of Funk edition of Menno ("Works" not "Writings", 1871 rather than 1870.

__FORCETOC__
__TOC__
=1956 Article=

Divorce has not permitted among the Anabaptists and Mennonites from the earliest times to the mid-20th century except for the cause of adultery, in accordance with the Biblical standard as found in Matthew 19:9, although separation (either legal or privately arranged) was generally allowed.

In a tract entitled Concerning Divorce written by one of the first Swiss Brethren in 1527, possibly by [[Sattler, Michael (d. 1527)|Michael Sattler]], appears the earliest known Anabaptist treatment of the subject. The main points in this tract stressed: (1) the permanence of the marriage bond; (2) the supremacy of one's obligation to Christ over obligation to the marriage partner; (3) the only ground for divorce was adultery; (4) to marry one guilty of fornication was itself fornication; (5) the innocent party to a divorce was not forbidden to remarry, and was by implication permitted to do so. Except for the fifth point, regarding which there was some ambiguity and occasional divergence within the brotherhood, this tract can be thought of as summarizing quite well the position of the Mennonite church regarding divorce through the mid 20th century.

[[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] also clarified the Anabaptist position on divorce, referring directly to the words of Christ and of the Apostle Paul. He reiterated the theme of adultery being the only acceptable ground for divorce. "And also, that the bond of undefiled, honorable matrimony is so unchangeably bound in the kingdom and government of Christ that neither a man nor a woman can forsake one the other, and take another, understand rightly what Christ says, except it be for fornication, Matthew 19:9. And Paul also holds the same doctrine, that they shall he bound to each other, and that they are to live in union; that the man has not power over his own body, nor the woman over hers, 1 Corinthians 7:4." (Works, 247). The [[Wismar Resolutions]] of 1554, (as quoted in [[Mennonitisches Lexikon|Mennonitisches Lexikon]] I, 530) say: "Adultery on the part of one member breaks the marriage relationship. However, the responsible party may return to re-establish the relationship provided he (or she) gives evidence of due repentance and a changed life. In cases of deliberate adultery, the innocent party may be free to remarry after consulting with the congregation." The position taken by the [[Hutterian Brethren (Hutterische Brüder)|Hutterian Brethren]] was ". . . that nothing can break the marriage bond except adultery. In cases where a man is married to an unbelieving woman, and she desires to live with him, he may not divorce her (nor vice versa). If the unbelieving husband threatens her faith or hinders the training of the children in the faith, she may divorce her husband, but must not remarry so long as that man is living."

There has been some discussion in the earlier literature regarding the bearing of the [[Ban|ban]] and [[Excommunication|excommunication]] on divorce. However, the position was invariably that the ban is of itself not sufficient grounds for divorce, but only adultery, as stated by Christ in Matthew 19:9 (see Menno Simons, op. cit., 241-268; Part II, 123-137).

The predominant approach to the problem of divorce among the Mennonites was direct and positive rather than indirect and negative. It consisted chiefly of stressing the obligations of marriage, and an emphasis on the permanency of the marriage bond. This was evidenced not only by the dearth of literature on divorce, but also by the fact that neither the [http://www.anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php/Dordrecht_Confession_of_Faith_(Mennonite,_1632) Dordrecht Confession] nor the [http://www.anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php/Mennonite_Articles_of_Faith_by_Cornelis_Ris_(1766) Cornelis Ris Confession] directly treats divorce. However, both confessions put great stress on the importance of marriage, insisting that it be "in the Lord," and that it should never be entered into lightly or unadvisedly.

Literature on the question of divorce among the Mennonites prior to the 1950s is rather rare. Only occasionally did an article or editorial appear in one or another of the official publications of the various Mennonite bodies. Such as did appear were primarily of a hortative nature, and follow quite closely the theme expressed above (e.g., [[Gospel Witness (Periodical)|The Gospel Witness]], 31 October 1906, 482; [[Herald of Truth (Periodical)|Herald of Truth]], 26 December 1907, 482; [[Mennonite, The (Periodical, 1885-1998)|''The Mennonite'']], 10 December 1946, 2).

That this theme still represents the official and general position of all branches of the church in the 1950s can hardly be doubted. But that the standard has not always been upheld is also quite evident. The [[Doctrine and Conduct Committee (General Conference Mennonite Church)|Doctrine and Conduct Committee]] of the [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]] through A. Warkentin and Jacob D. Goering recently made a survey of divorce and remarriage within the congregations of this branch of the church in the [[United States of America|United States]] only. These statistics indicated that approximately one marriage in thirty ended in divorce in this group in 1940-1945. The accuracy of the statistics may be doubted, and the validity of the survey questioned because it covered abnormal war years. Whether or not these divorces were all caused by adultery was impossible to say, on account of the nature of the survey and the responses obtained. However, it was an unmistakable indication of the beginning breakdown of the high marriage standards heretofore prevailing.

In a paper read by [[Fretz, Joseph Winfield (1910-2005)|J. Winfield Fretz]] before the [[Mennonite Cultural Problems Conference|Mennonite Cultural Problems Conference]] held at Grantham, PA in June 1951, it was pointed out that one of the crucial problems facing the Mennonite church was whether or not to grant membership in the church to converts who had been divorced before their conversion. To accept them threatened the stability of the brotherhood because of the scarred and broken personalities and families often involved. Yet the church felt the call to evangelize all men, to call them to repentance and into the fellowship of the believers regardless of past sins. This paper also corroborated the impression made by the earlier survey, namely, that the divorce evil was becoming an increasing problem in the congregations. Industrialization, urbanization, and evil social influences of modern society tended to have a disintegrative effect on Mennonite families and communities in some areas. Those Mennonite groups which had undertaken a vigorous program of evangelistic outreach in the city mission and rural mission work were facing increasing pressure in the matter of accepting candidates for membership who have been previously divorced and remarried, since the number of such cases in the general American population was relatively high. [[Wenger, John C. (1910-1995)|J. C. Wenger]]'s study shows that before 1900 the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] tolerated the acceptance of divorced and remarried persons into membership, at least in some sections such as [[Virginia (USA)|Virginia]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]], and [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], but that after that date the position became stricter, no such persons being admitted to membership. The practice in the 1950s on this point in various North American groups was as follows: [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church]], [[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren]], [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite (CGC)|Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]], [[Old Order Amish|Old Order Amish]], [[Rosedale Network of Churches|Conservative Mennonite Conference]], and [[Evangelical Mennonite Conference (Kleine Gemeinde)|Evangelical Mennonite Conference (Kleine Gemeinde)]] groups did not accept divorced and remarried persons into membership. [[Fellowship of Evangelical Bible Churches|Evangelical Mennonite Brethren]] and [[United Missionary Church|United Missionary Church]] did accept such persons. The practice in the [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite]] group varied, since there was local autonomy, but many congregations did accept such persons into membership.

In Europe the Dutch, [[Konferenz der nordwestdeutschen Mennonitengemeinden |Northwest German]], West Prussian, and Palatinate-Hesse groups have for some time accepted divorced and remarried persons into membership, and permitted divorce to members, although the cases have been rare, and the last-named group permitted divorce only on the ground of adultery. The [[Verband deutscher Mennonitengemeinden (Federation of Mennonite Churches)|Badischer Verband]] until World War II did not permit divorce except for adultery nor receive divorced and remarried persons, but after the War permitted reception of the innocent party in such cases, with remarriage allowed. Swiss and French Mennonites maintained a position similar to that of the Badischer Verband. -- ''Jacob D. Goering''

=1990 Article=
The earliest Anabaptist tract on divorce and remarriage, "Concerning Divorce", was written in 1527 and has been attributed by some to [[Sattler, Michael (d. 1527)|Michael Sattler]]. It stressed the permanence of the marriage bond, the priority of one's obligation to Christ over one's obligations to a marriage partner, adultery as the only grounds for divorce, taboos against marrying a fornicator, and sanctions against remarrying when divorced. Menno Simons also called for faithfulness in marriage, allowing adultery as the only grounds for divorce, according to Matthew 19:9 and 1 Corinthians 7:4. According to J.C. Wenger, the Swiss Brethren, the Moravian Hutterites and the Dutch Mennonites all had similar standards regarding divorce. With such a clear view among [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]], what are Mennonite attitudes 450 years later?

Divorce rates in the United States have been among the highest in the world. The number of divorces peaked after World War II and declined to a low of under 200 per 100,000 population in 1960. However, since then divorce rates have been rising steadily, so that by 1980 they were well over 1,540 per 100,000. Divorce rates in [[Canada|Canada]] were in the vicinity of 40 per 100,000 population through the 1950s and until 1968, when divorces began to rise sharply with passage of the new Canada Divorce Act. Canadian divorce rates then escalated to 278 per 100,000 population in 1981. Thus, American rates were, at one time, more than six times as high as Canadian rates (260 compared to 40). By 1980 the ratio was about two to one.

Industrialization and urbanization tend to result in smaller nuclear families which are more mobile, but also more vulnerable to breakdown. Although not yet as frequent as in North America, divorce is also increasing in Europe. One can also expect that divorce will also increase as Latin America, Asia and [[Africa|Africa]], where divorce rates are still quite low, are increasingly influenced by industrialization.

Divorce rates do however vary considerably by religious orientation, as shown in Canadian religious comparisons in 1981. Non-Judeo-Christian groups have the highest rate of divorce (17 percent), followed by those who prefer no religion (12 percent). These two groups are significantly above the Canadian average of 7.7 percent in 1981. The Mennonites (3.3 percent) rank at the bottom with the Hutterites (.2 percent) and the Reformed bodies (1.9 percent). This suggests that ethnic, family, and small group ties, especially when combined with strong religious commitment, still inhibit divorce.

[[Kauffman, J. Howard (1919-2003)|J. Howard Kauffman]] and [[Harder, Leland David (1926-2013)|Leland Harder]], who surveyed most of the Mennonites in North America in the 1970s, found that 77 percent believed that marriage was a lifelong commitment never to be broken except by [[Death and Dying|death]]; only one percent thought incompatibility was reason for divorce (data from 1972). Their study also indicated that only .3 percent of married couples were separated but not divorced, which was still a very low figure compared to national statistics. A later 1989 study by Kauffman and [[Driedger, Leo (1928-2010)|Leo Driedger]] found that 72 percent believed marriage was a lifelong commitment never to broken. Denominationally the range varied from 64 percent ([[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite]]) to 81 percent ([[Mennonite Brethren Church|Mennonite Brethren]]). The number who felt marriage could be broken if attempts to reconcile disharmony failed increased from 22 percent in 1972 to 27 percent in 1989.

Leland Harder, who surveyed General Conference Mennonites in North America in 1960, 1970, and 1980, found that divorce rates among Mennonites are rising (.6 percent of members reported breakdown in 1960 and 1.7 percent in 1980). Those who had ever been divorced rose to 4.8 percent in 1980. Eighty percent of the congregations reported that at least one or more members were either divorced or separated in 1980. One fourth reported 10 or more members separated or divorced; 4 churches reported over 40. While urbanization is a factor, other factors must be considered to explain these variations. Again, there were substantial national differences with .8 percent of General Conference Mennonite members having experienced marriage breakdown in the [[United States of America|United States]] and .2 percent in Canada in 1960, a ratio of four to one. The same national differences remained in 1980 (2.4 percent and .6 percent) respectively. The Kauffman/Driedger 1989 study indicated that 4.2% of Mennonites had experienced divorce or separation.

Michael Yoder conducted a study of the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church]], the largest group of Mennonites in North America, in 1982. Yoder found that separation and divorce were lowest among active members (.5 and 1.0 percent) and highest among inactive members (2.0 and 4.2 percent). This may indicate that religious commitment is an important factor in marriage maintenance, although it may also indicate that those experiencing marriage breakdown tend to become inactive in congregations. While only 3.2 percent of the active members were ever separated or divorced, three times as many inactive members (9.3 percent) were in this category. Although the percentages were relatively low compared to national figures, about 5 percent, or almost 5,000 persons, in the Mennonite Church were or had been separated or divorced. This percentage was very similar to that of the General Conference Mennonite Church in 1980.

Yoder also found that one fourth (24.1 percent) of the blacks in his study had been separated or divorced at one time, while Asian Mennonites showed the lowest rate (1.8 percent) of marriage breakdown. Both groups are non-Caucasian and both were heavily urban (85 percent and 71 percent, respectively). The percentages seemed to be related to traditions of family stability within ethnic groups. While traditional white Mennonites appeared to be closer to the Asian type, Mennonites who were American Indians resembled more the pattern found among blacks, and Hispanic Mennonites were located in between.

Paul Lederach made an important study of youth in the Mennonite Church which compared the beliefs and attitudes of youth from broken homes with those of all youth. He found that youth from broken homes had weaker Christian convictions and ethics, attended church activities less often, had more trouble getting along at home, and more often exhibited deviant behavior. The home is the primary place for socialization of [[Children|children]], and these data clearly show that broken families cannot compete with normal ones in the rearing of children. Much more research is required to determine to what ex tent these findings apply elsewhere in the world, and what are the many factors which cause family breakdown. -- Leo Driedger
= Bibliography =
''The Complete Writings of Menno Simons, c. 1496-1561'', trans. Leonard Verduin, ed. J. C. Wenger. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1956.

Menno Simons. ''Complete Works'', English trans. Elkhart, IN: John Funk, 1871. (References in the 1956 article are to this edition.)

Driedger, Leo, Michael Yoder, and Peter Sawatzky. "Divorce Among Mennonites: Evidence of Family Breakdown." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 59 (1985): 367-382.

Harder, Leland. ''General Conference Mennonite Church Fact Book of Congregational Membership.'' Newton, 1971, 1980-81.

Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. ''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 529 f.

Kauffman, J. Howard and Leland Harder. ''Anabaptists Four Centuries Later: a Profile of Five Mennonite and Brethren in Christ Denominations.'' Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1975: 122-23, 170-76.

Kauffman, J. Howard and Leo Driedger. ''The Mennonite Mosaic: Identity and Modernization.'' Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1991.

Springer, Nelson and A.J. Klassen, compilers. ''Mennonite Bibliography, 1631-1961,'' 2 vols. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1977: index.

Wenger, John C. "Concerning Divorce: a Swiss Brethren Tract on the Primacy of Loyalty to Christ and the Right to Divorce and Remarriage." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 21 (1947): 114-119.

Wenger, J. C. ''Dealing Redemptively with Those Involved in Divorce and Remarriage Problems.'' Goshen, IN, 1954.

Wittlinger, Carlton O. ''Piety and Obedience: The Story of the Brethren in Christ.'' Nappanee, IN: Evangel Press, 1978, 117-19, 525-27.

Yoder, Michael. "Findings From the 1982 Mennonite Census." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 59 (1985): 307-349.
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 2, pp. 74-75; vol. 5, pp. 241-242|date=1989|a1_last=Goering|a1_first=Jacob D.|a2_last=Driedger|a2_first=Leo}}

Strasbourg Discipline

2025-01-31T12:45:35Z

JoeSpringer: Added link to Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalendar and page references for that article as well as for Geschichte der Bernischen Täufer

The Strasbourg Discipline is a set of 23 regulations drawn up in 1568 by the "preachers and elders from many places in the meeting at [[Strasbourg (Alsace, France)|Strasbourg]]" and confirmed and renewed in 1607 at the same place by the assembled representatives of the congregations, This Abrede der Diener und Eltesten (Agreement of the Preachers and Elders) was expanded at two later conferences, viz., on March 5 (year not given) in Obersülzen in the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]] and in 1688 at [[Offstein (Rheinhessen, Germany)|Ofenstein]].

These articles do not constitute an actual [[Confessions, Doctrinal|confession of faith]] or dogmatic teachings, but in general discuss practical questions of church life, for the most part dealing with the organization of the congregations, supply of ministers, discipline, [[Ordinances|ordinances]], marriage, care of orphans, etc.

Three manuscript copies of the Strasbourg Discipline recopied and handed down through [[Amish Mennonites|Amish]] bishops in Pennsylvania, Iowa, [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]], and Indiana are now in the [https://www.mennoniteusa.org/historical-archives/ Mennonite Church USA Archives (Elkhart).] One of these is translated above together with an attached appendix of four articles adopted at Zofingen (Aargau) in 1630.

William Yoder, an Amish bishop of near [[Nappanee Old Order Amish Settlement (Nappanee, Indiana, USA)|Nappanee, Indiana]], published the Strasbourg Discipline together with additional material in 1905 as Artikel und Ordnungen der Christlichen Gemeinde in Christo Jesu (printed at Elkhart, Indiana) as a 16-page booklet.

The [[Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender (Periodical)|Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender]] for 1906 (pp. 134-143) contains an interesting article by Mathias Pohl on the Discipline, in which he presented a paraphrase article by article from an old copy then in the possession of Peter Kipfer of the Emmental congregation near [[Langnau im Emmental (Kanton Bern, Switzerland)|Langnau]], Switzerland. Two additional articles appear in this paraphrase, one dealing with [[Tobacco|tobacco]], which could not have been in the 1568 form, hence were likely added in 1607. Also presented by Pohl are four additional articles adopted by a conference at Obersülzen on March 5 (year missing) and another set of five articles adopted by the conference at Bronstein (Berstein) in March 1688.

[[Müller, Ernst (1849-1927)|Ernst Müller]] in his [[Geschichte der Bernischen Täufer]] (Frauenfeld, 1895), pp. 50-52, refers to the Strasbourg Discipline with brief characterization and summary (pp. 50-52) stating that the manuscript copy he used was in private possession in Emmental Mennonite hands, possibly the Kipfer copy. He refers to the Obersülzen additions as of 5 March 1668, but does not mention the Ofenstein additions. An interesting and valuable feature of the Kipfer manuscript is a colored drawing on the cover picturing [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] men and women in an assembly. This is reproduced in the Pohl article in black and white.

This is, next to the [[Schleitheim Confession]], the only significant church document of the [[Swiss Brethren]] which has been preserved. It is of outstanding significance from the practical point of view, but of no value theologically.

= Additional Information =
Text of [http://www.anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php/Strasbourg_Discipline_(South_German_Anabaptist,_1568) Strasbourg Discipline].
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 4, p. 644|date=1959|a1_last=Bender|a1_first=Harold S|a2_last= |a2_first= }}

Strasbourg Conferences

2025-01-31T12:44:41Z

JoeSpringer: Added link to Strasbourg Discipline (1568) and updated information about manuscript copies found at MC USA Archives instead of Goshen MHL, updated reference to Bethel College's MLA

[[Strasbourg (Alsace, France)|Strasbourg]] in Alsace, a more tolerant city than most places in Europe in the 16th century, was the scene of at least six conferences of [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] ministers in 1554, 1555, 1557, 1568, 1592, and 1607.

1. The conference of 1554 is known solely through a note in the record of the Strasbourg city council meeting of 9 March 1554, reported by [[Hulshof, Abraham (1874-1954)|Hulshof]] (p. 218), which reads (in translation): "On the previous Saturday a meeting of Anabaptists was held at the Long Bridge, at which 600 are supposed to have assembled."

2. The conference held 24 August 1555, is known solely through a letter sent to Holland, containing the "Agreement Made by the Brethren and Elders at Strasbourg, Assembled Because of the Question of the Origin of the Flesh of Christ." This document of about 800 words was first published in [[Alenson, Hans Arentsz (d. 1644)|Hans Alenson's]][[Alenson, Hans Arentsz (d. 1644)|Alenson, Hans Arentsz]] Tegen-Bericht of 1630 (pages 124 f.) who says he "took it from the copy which had been faithfully translated from the High German into the Netherlands language by I.H.V.P.N. [Carel van Gent?] in Amsterdam, 1 September 1610." A copy of the Tegen-Bericht is in the Zürich University Library. The Agreement is also found in the reprint of the Tegen-Bericht in Bibliotheca Reformatoria Neerlandica 10 v. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1903-1914: v. VII, occupying pages 226-28. S. Blaupot ten Cate published it from a copy in the [[Amsterdam Mennonite Library (Bibliotheek en Archief van de Vereenigde
Doopsgezinde Gemeente te Amsterdam)|Amsterdam Mennonite Library]], since lost, in his Geschiedenis der Doopsgezinden in Groningen, Overijssel en Oost-Friesland I (Leeuwarden, 1842), pp. 254-57. Hulshof reprinted it from ten Cate in his Geschiedenis van de Doopsgezinden te Straatsburg van 1525 tot 1557 (Amsterdam, 1905), pp. 220-22. The Agreement clearly states that the meeting was called because the brethren had repeatedly been requested and urged to speak about the Incarnation, and now recently again by the Hofmannites and by the brethren in the Netherlands. They had "gathered from many places." The concern of the Agreement is to bring harmony into the brotherhood by holding to the simple statements of Scripture regarding the Incarnation and going no further. It is more important to keep the commandments of Christ than to press to an understanding of the mysteries of how Christ became flesh. Hulshof assumes that Dutch and High Germans (Swiss Brethren) took part in the meeting. He rightly rejects several statements by [[Ottius, Johann Heinrich (ca. 1617-1682)|Ottius ]](Annales Anabaptistici, 120) who knew about the meeting from the Alenson report, and claims, clearly without foundation, that Moravians ([[Hutterite Article Book|Hutterites)]] and Germans were together, and that the parties in the dispute excommunicated each other, here basing erroneously on a statement in the Protocoll of the [[Frankenthal Disputation (1571)|Frankenthal disputation]] of 1571, p. 14, which makes no reference to the Strasbourg Conference of 1555.

3. The conference of 1557 is known solely through a letter written to Menno by two High German ministers, [[Zelis Jacobs (d. ca. 1565)|Zylis ]]and [[Lemke (16th century)|Lemke]], on behalf of the Strasbourg conference, giving a report of the conclusions. Hulshof printed the rather lengthy epistle (some 1600 words) in full, because so many incorrect statements about the conference had been made by German historians, who apparently had never seen the text of the letter. He used the reprint by J. G. de Hoop Scheffer, "Opmerkingen en mededeelingen betreffende Menno Simons, VIII," Doopsgezinde Bijdragen (1894): 10-70. The letter is reprinted on pp. 47-53 from a handwritten copy (now in the Amsterdam Mennonite Archives) made by [[Cuperus, Johannes (1725-1777)|J. Cuperus]] in November 1769 from a printed book, Een gansch duytlic ende bescheyden antwoordt . . . door L.D.W. According to this letter, some 50 elders and ministers assembled from [[Moravia (Czech Republic)|Moravia]], Swabia, Switzerland, Württemberg, Breisgau, and Alsace, as far as 150 miles away, among whom was a preacher in whose house the Schleitheim confession of 1527 had been drawn up. The occasion for the meeting was a controversy between two elders, Theobald of Worms and [[Farwendel (16th century)|Farwendel]] of Kreuznach, over original sin and the sin of the soul and of the flesh, a controversy which had seriously divided the brotherhood. The controversy was overcome at Strasbourg and harmony was restored. The second topic for discussion was the question of the severe application of avoidance or shunning in connection with the ban, including marital avoidance, as advocated by Leenaert Bouwens, who had also won Menno to his view. Bouwens and Menno had called a meeting of Dutch and High German leaders at Cologne in the spring of 1557, at which they had hoped to win the High Germans for their position. But very few High Germans had appeared, and the attempt was a failure. The epistle from the Strasbourg conference, addressed to Menno and the Dutch leaders, was actually a reply to the letter from Menno to the High Germans. It rejected in a kindly spirit the proposals for a strict application of the ban, and expressed the strong hope that differences regarding this matter should not be the cause of a break. Unfortunately their hope was to be disappointed, for this break came in 1559; Menno rejected the proffered hand of reconciliation, and the Dutch elders pronounced the ban on the High Germans at a meeting of delegates of both sides held in that year.

Hulshof reports that the large gathering of Anabaptists at the conferences of 1554 and 1555 led the city council of Strasbourg to renewed action against the brethren, but that the examination of arrested persons by the newly appointed (August 1555) Anabaptist Commission produced no information about the conferences. Petrus Novesianus, a schoolteacher, but not an Anabaptist, reported that there were many Anabaptist sects, naming five: Hutterites, Hofmannites, Swiss, Bilgrammites ([[Marpeck, Pilgram (d. 1556)|Pilgram Marpeck]]), and Zabites(?).

J. J. Kiwiet, in his Pilgram Marbeck (Kassel, 1957), interprets the conference of 1555 as a gathering whose purpose was to unite all the divergent Anabaptist groups, holding that it was really the fruit of Pilgram Marpeck's efforts to unify the groups, and that it succeeded. He offers no documentary proof for his claim, grounding it rather on the evidence of Marpeck's long campaign for unity. It is possible, as he suggests, that Marpeck was present at the conferences of 1554 and 1555. Since he died in 1556 he could not have attended the conference of 1557. The conference of 1557, as the above report shows, was indeed called to bring about unity between the groups in controversy over the doctrine of original sin, and it succeeded. In this sense the conference of 1557 would better fit Kiwiet's thesis than that of 1555, which was called to deal with a theological difference which separated the Dutch and the Hofmannites from the High Germans. However, no unity was achieved at this conference between the disputing parties. It is of interest to note that at this conference it was reported that there were "50 congregations from the Eiffel to Moravia, some of which had 500 to 600 brethren and sisters."

4. The conferences of 1568 and 1607 are known solely through a discipline adopted at the [[Strasbourg Discipline|1568 conference]] and confirmed at the conference of 1607. It is called "Agreement of the Ministers and Elders of Many Localities in Conference at Strasbourg in the Year 1568, and Reaffirmed at the Strasbourg Conference of 1607." The discipline is known only from handwritten copies handed down from the past, several of which are to be found in the Mennonite Church USA Archives (Elkhart) and Bethel College's Mennonite Library and Archives. An edition was printed in 1905 at Elkhart, Indiana, together with the disciplines adopted at several later conferences in Europe and America. The oldest manuscript copy extant in America was made in 1836 by Peter Unsicker at Beissenhofen, Germany. H. S. Bender edited and published in German and in English translation a manuscript copy of 1860, "The Discipline Adopted by the Strasbourg Conference of 1568," Mennonite Quarterly Review I (1927): pp. 57-66. Here he reports an earlier text in the possession of Peter Kipfer of the Emmental congregation near Langnau, Switzerland, which had been published in paraphrase by Mathias Pohl of Sembach, Palatinate, Germany, in the [[Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender (Periodical)|Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender ]]for 1906, pp.134-43. Ernst Müller's report in his [[Geschichte der Bernischen Täufer|Geschichte der bernischen Täufer ]](Frauenfeld, 1895), pp. 50-52, apparently was based on the Kipfer copy. The twenty-three articles of the 1568 discipline deal largely with practical questions such as the provisions for traveling ministers to visit the congregations, for selection and ordination of ministers and bishops to fill vacancies, the care for orphans of the brotherhood, moderation in the practice of shunning apostate members, restricting the holy kiss to members, not requiring rebaptism of outsiders who have already been baptized, maintaining simplicity in costume, no rigid uniformity in mode of distributing the communion bread, etc. One article refers to the question of the Incarnation, calling for abiding by the Scripture on this point and avoiding as far as possible all disputing. This is the only known Anabaptist discipline after the Schleitheim discipline of 1527.

5. The conference of 1592 is known solely through a letter written on behalf of the participants of the conference to the Socinians in Poland, in reply to a letter from a Socinian leader, Christian Ostorodt, dated 20 October 1591, found in the City Library of Bern, Switzerland, and published by Theodor Wotschke with an introduction and notes in Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte XII (1915) 137-54. The reply of the Strasbourg conference was published under the title (translated), An Answer of the Swiss Brethren, also Called High Germans, to the Polish, Concerning the Point of the Incarnation and the Deity of Jesus Christ, in Handelinge der Vereenigde Vlaemse en Duytse Doopsgesinde Gemeynten Gehouden tot Haerlem Anno 1649 (Vlissingen, 1666). A postscript to the letter adds the note (translated): "Passed at the general gathering of the elders and ministers from many countries, held in the year 1592 at Strasbourg. . . . Translated from the High German into the Low German from Rauf-bits' [Rauf Bitsch] own handwriting." Rauf Bitsch was a leading spokesman of the Brethren in the disputation at Frankenthal in 1571.

The repeated meetings at Strasbourg suggest not only that Strasbourg was tolerant, but that there must have been a continuing Anabaptist congregation at Strasbourg (as indeed we know there was down to at least 1880), that there may have been other congregations in the neighborhood (as we know there were both north and south of Strasbourg in Alsace), and that Strasbourg had an established reputation as a meeting place. Outside of Schleitheim and Augsburg (both in 1527), no other Anabaptist conferences meeting in the 16th century south of Cologne are known.
= Bibliography =
Horsch, John. "The Faith of the Swiss Brethren." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' II (1931): 24-27.

Hulshof, Abraham. Geschiedenis van de Doopsgezinden te Straatsburg van 1525 tot 1557 (Amsterdam, 1905) particularly Ch. XIII, "Algemeene Vergaderingen door Doopsgezinden uit verschillende Landen in 1554 en volgende Jaaren te Straatsburg gehouden," 218-34.

Ottius, J. H. Annales Anabaptistici. Basel, 1672.
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 4, pp. 642-644|date=1959|a1_last=Bender|a1_first=Harold S|a2_last=|a2_first=}}

Strasbourg Discipline

2025-01-31T10:17:38Z

JoeSpringer: Corrected location of the manuscript copies from MHL to MCUSA Archives. Corrected place of 1630 conference from "Hoffingen" (as reported in MQR 1927, inaccurate transcription of or error in source copy) to Zofingen

The Strasbourg Discipline is a set of 23 regulations drawn up in 1568 by the "preachers and elders from many places in the meeting at [[Strasbourg (Alsace, France)|Strasbourg]]" and confirmed and renewed in 1607 at the same place by the assembled representatives of the congregations, This Abrede der Diener und Eltesten (Agreement of the Preachers and Elders) was expanded at two later conferences, viz., on March 5 (year not given) in Obersülzen in the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]] and in 1688 at [[Offstein (Rheinhessen, Germany)|Ofenstein]].

These articles do not constitute an actual [[Confessions, Doctrinal|confession of faith]] or dogmatic teachings, but in general discuss practical questions of church life, for the most part dealing with the organization of the congregations, supply of ministers, discipline, [[Ordinances|ordinances]], marriage, care of orphans, etc.

Three manuscript copies of the Strasbourg Discipline recopied and handed down through [[Amish Mennonites|Amish]] bishops in Pennsylvania, Iowa, [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]], and Indiana are now in the [https://www.mennoniteusa.org/historical-archives/ Mennonite Church USA Archives (Elkhart).] One of these is translated above together with an attached appendix of four articles adopted at Zofingen (Aargau) in 1630.

William Yoder, an Amish bishop of near [[Nappanee Old Order Amish Settlement (Nappanee, Indiana, USA)|Nappanee, Indiana]], published the Strasbourg Discipline together with additional material in 1905 as Artikel und Ordnungen der Christlichen Gemeinde in Christo Jesu (printed at Elkhart, Indiana) as a 16-page booklet.

The Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender for 1906 contains an interesting article by Mathias Pohl on the Discipline, in which he presented a paraphrase article by article from an old copy then in the possession of Peter Kipfer of the Emmental congregation near [[Langnau im Emmental (Kanton Bern, Switzerland)|Langnau]], Switzerland. Two additional articles appear in this paraphrase, one dealing with [[Tobacco|tobacco]], which could not have been in the 1568 form, hence were likely added in 1607. Also presented by Pohl are four additional articles adopted by a conference at Obersülzen on March 5 (year missing) and another set of five articles adopted by the conference at Bronstein (Berstein) in March 1688.

[[Müller, Ernst (1849-1927)|Ernst Müller]] in his Berner Täufer (1895) refers to the Strasbourg Discipline with brief characterization and summary (pp. 50-52) stating that the manuscript copy he used was in private possession in Emmental Mennonite hands, possibly the Kipfer copy. He refers to the Obersülzen additions as of 5 March 1668, but does not mention the Ofenstein additions. An interesting and valuable feature of the Kipfer manuscript is a colored drawing on the cover picturing [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] men and women in an assembly. This is reproduced in the Pohl article in black and white.

This is, next to the [[Schleitheim Confession]], the only significant church document of the [[Swiss Brethren]] which has been preserved. It is of outstanding significance from the practical point of view, but of no value theologically.

= Additional Information =
Text of [http://www.anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php/Strasbourg_Discipline_(South_German_Anabaptist,_1568) Strasbourg Discipline].
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 4, p. 644|date=1959|a1_last=Bender|a1_first=Harold S|a2_last= |a2_first= }}

Passau (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)

2024-08-30T20:58:42Z

JoeSpringer: Add missing link to Philippites at end of article.

[[File:Passau.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Passau, Germany 
Source: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikipedia Commons]'']]
Passau (coordinates: 48° 34′ 0″ N, 13° 28′ 0″ E), a city on the Danube in Lower [[Bayern Federal State (Germany)|Bavaria]], [[Germany|Germany]], once a fortress, where, according to some reports, a small [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] congregation formed at the beginning of the Reformation period. In 1527 [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut]] baptized Hermann Kheil, a citizen of Passau (Vergicht Passau, 4 February 1529; Nicoladoni: 28). [[Brandhuber, Wolfgang (d. 1529)|Wolfgang Brandhuber]], Lienhard Stieglitz, and other Anabaptist leaders stemmed from Passau. The appendix to Nicoladoni's book contains the records of several Anabaptist trials in Passau. In 1537 about sixty Anabaptists on their way from [[Moravia (Czech Republic)|Moravia]] to South Germany, were seized in Passau and held in the castle prison for five years. Many died including the song writers [[Betz, Hans (d. 1537)|Hans Betz]] (Petz) and [[Schneider, Michael (16th century)|Bernhard (Michael) Schneider]]. The prisoners wrote fifty-one hymns, which are contained in the [[Ausbund|Ausbund]]. (See also [[Philippites|Philippites]].)
= Bibliography =
Beck, Josef. Die Geschichts-Bücher der Wiedertäufer in Oesterreich-Ungarn. Vienna, 1883; reprinted Nieuwkoop: De Graaf, 1967: X and 132.

Erbkam, H. W. Geschichte der protestantischen Sekten im Zeitalter der Reformation. Hamburg and Gotha, 1848.

Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. ''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. III, 336.

Nicoladoni, A. Johannes Bunderlin von Linz und die oberösterreichischen Täufergemeinden. Berlin, 1893.

Winter, V. A. Gesch. der bayerischen Wiedertaufer im 16. Jahrhundert. Munich, 1809.

Wolkan, Rudolf. Geschicht-Buch der Hutterischen Brüder. Macleod, AB, and Vienna, 1923: 74.
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 4, p. 122|date=1959|a1_last=Neff|a1_first=Christian|a2_last= |a2_first= }}

Sexuality

2024-02-08T20:01:26Z

JoeSpringer: /* Additional Information */

__TOC__
Few written records exist to shed light on Mennonite sexual attitudes and behavior before the early 20th century. This might be surprising when one considers how pervasive an aspect of the human personality and how important a dimension of human interaction sexuality is. However, Mennonites were apparently following the societal reluctance to acknowledge their sexuality explicitly and certainly to talk (or write) much about it. Those who can remember Mennonite congregational life in the 1920s or 1930s have witnessed a remarkable change in the openness with which sexuality is discussed. Articles in church papers, as well as conference proceedings, deal with sexuality concerns much more explicitly, again reflecting the trends in society.

Written material from earlier periods referred to aspects of genital sexual behavior much more than to sexuality as a broad dimension of personal identity and overall male-female interaction.

There was widespread Christian bias against sex solely for pleasure -- the bias was that sex is for procreation only. An understanding of this requires a look at the ancient mind-body dualism derived from Greek thought. There are some hints of this in some of the Apostle Paul's writings, especially when he writes about carnal-mindedness. The mind-body dualism was applied by the early Christians in an anti-flesh manner. That attitude stems from the early centuries of the Christian church and was carried through the Middle Ages into modern times. Part of the reason for this attitude on the part of the early Christians may have been their reaction against the licentiousness of the ruling class in Roman society. This anti-sex, anti-flesh attitude also contributed to the rise of monasticism and the affirmation of total celibacy as the most devout life-style to which Christians could aspire.

The overall mind-body dualism persisted well into the 20th century. Overcoming this dualism was made more difficult because human physical bodies were sexual bodies, and sexuality has always been a source of anxiety to society. The present writer remembers clearly the attitudes conveyed from the pulpit when he was a lad: an attitude suggesting that one almost needed to be ashamed of one's body; the body was identified with "the flesh" -- the body was seen as a major source of temptation which would lead to sin. In recent years, however, these attitudes are changing and the church is beginning to affirm the goodness of God's marvelous [[Creation, Theology of|creation]], the human body. The mind-body dichotomy is also lessening as we begin to focus on and understand the meaning of wholeness and shalom.

Because of the scarcity of [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] writing on sexuality, we know very little about the Anabaptists' sexual attitudes. What they did write was standard condemnation of sexual immorality. Their attitudes seem to have been common to the Christians of their times, but their practice was that of a more consistent following of those attitudes, a greater adherence to their beliefs and standards. Evidence of their exceptional practice (e.g., less sexual promiscuity) is gleaned from the writings of those who opposed them. One Reformed pastor, [[Thormann, Gorg (1655-1708)|Georg Thormann]], author of [[Probier-Stein|Probier-Stein]] (1696) found it necessary, in order to be credible, to praise Swiss Brethren for their higher-than-average Christian morality.

We also have record of their prohibition of behaviors such as adultery. In the congregational records at [[Montbéliard (Doubs, Franche-Comté, France)|Montbéliard ]]in [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] there is reference to certain members who were excommunicated "for reasons of adultery." In the early 1800s church rules of congregations in the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]] included prohibitions against adultery and prostitution.

As part of the Radical Reformation Anabaptists experienced some acute and perhaps unique sexual problems. In some cases there were sexual irregularities. For example, when a mate would not go along with a spouse in joining the Anabaptists, the issue of fidelity to one's unbelieving spouse came into question. In some cases a form of bigamy developed in which a "spiritual marriage" formed with fellow Anabaptist adherents coexisted alongside a previous marriage. Such irregularities probably involved only a handful, however. In [[Münster Anabaptists|Münster]] there apparently were instances of polygamy, not as a demonstration of sexual license but for purposes of procreation only, there being more women than men in the movement, a situation exacerbated by persecution.

[[File:Amstutz-H_Clair.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''H. Clair Amstutz. Scan courtesy Archives of [http://www.mennoniteusa.org/executive-board/archives/ Mennonite Church USA-Goshen]. Hist. Mss. 4-299'']]
Since the 1920s, a steadily increasing amount of information is available because Mennonites have begun to speak and write a great deal more about sexual attitudes and practices. In August 1929, C. D. Esch spoke at the Mennonite Church (MC) General Conference on Christian standards of social purity. In 1941, in [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], an article appeared entitled "The Sexual Problem"(!) In the early 1950s a medical doctor, H. Clair Amstutz became a prolific and well-known writer on sexual, marriage, and family topics, concluding with his Marriage in today's world in 1978. [[Derstine, Clayton Freed (1891-1967)|C. F. Derstine]], George B. Brunk II, John W. Miller, Howard Charles, and Merle Eshleman also wrote on sexual issues and consistent ly upheld traditional standards of sexual morality.

In the late 1960s, with the development of the "free speech movement" and the [[Vietnam War (1954-75)|Vietnam War]] protests with their attack on the establishment and its tenets, a societal loosening of sexual values evolved which came to be known as "the new morality." Characteristics of the new morality included generally greater permissiveness, less commitment to marriage, and an abandonment of the standard of genital intercourse within marriage only. Articles condemning "the new morality" began to appear in many Mennonite church papers. Then in August 1968, a "Conference on Christianity and Sexuality" was convened on the campus of the Mennonite Biblical Seminary in Elkhart, Ind. The conference came about as a result of Mennonites attending several ecumenical church meetings on sexuality. The World Council of Churches conducted a "Consultation on Sexual Ethics" in Switzerland in 1964. The participants at that meeting were unable to formulate a theology of sexuality acceptable to those present and they acknowledged that the churches must accept some responsibility for the chaos which existed. Following this, in May 1966, the second North American Conference on Church and Family was held in Hamilton, Ont. The Mennonites attending the Hamilton conference met one evening to raise the question of what the conference had to say to Mennonites. It was acknowledged that the Mennonite denominations had given little attention to the issues raised, that more attention was needed, and that a conference should be held; hence the 1968 Elkhart meeting. At the Elkhart "Conference on Christianity and Sexuality," 91 participants engaged in dialogue, debate, and study of the papers presented by various participants. The conference was descriptive and analytical, and it was helpful to hear each other, but no unified statement on sexuality emerged.

In the late 1970s Mennonites became increasingly aware of the homosexually-oriented persons among them, and as people with same-sex orientation became more visible and more assertive the churches reacted (generally in a strongly negative way). Issues such as homosexuality, the growing [[Divorce and Remarriage|divorce]] rate, elective abortions among Mennonites, and an increasing incidence of non-marital sexual intercourse led a number of Mennonite leaders from various conferences to request the [[Mennonite Medical Association|Mennonite Medical Association]] (an inter-Mennonite organization of physicians and dentists) to sponsor a Symposium on Human Sexuality. This symposium met in two sessions (September 1978 and April 1979) to study a variety of sexuality issues. Inasmuch as homosexuality was the major stimulus for the symposium, most of the presentations had both sessions address the issues surrounding same-sex orientation.

In May 1980 another seminar on human sexuality was held at [[Laurelville Mennonite Church Center (Mount Pleasant, Pennsylvania, USA)|Laurelville Mennonite Church Center]] as a follow-up to the two Mennonite Medical Association consultations in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]]. In this meeting, as well as in the Chicago consultations, the Mennonite denominations were called upon to articulate a theology of the body, i.e., a sexual theology. The need for broad-based sex education programs in the local congregation was emphasized; and the church was challenged to do more by way of understanding homosexuality, to affirm singleness as a valid option, and to articulate meaningful statements on sexual ethics in the context of the new challenges presented by society. The church was also called upon to be a healing [[Community|community]] for the many who are victimized by a variety of sexual abuses and coercion. Mennonites were becoming increasingly aware that all forms of sexual exploitation existed within Mennonite congregations.

In 1981, the General Conference Mennonites (GCM) and the Mennonite Church (MC) jointly appointed a Human Sexuality Study Committee. This committee met three times a year from January 1982 to January 1987. It developed a study guide entitled Human sexuality in the Christian life which was submitted to the congregations of both denominations for study over the period from 1984 to 1987. The [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]] at Saskatoon in 1986 and the Mennonite Church General Assembly at Purdue in 1987 adopted similar statements reaffirming the goodness of sexuality and its place of honor and joy in the human family. Both called their members to confession and to covenant. Both groups reiterated their understanding that the [[Bible |Bible]] teaches that genital intercourse is reserved for heterosexual marriage and teaches the sanctity of the marriage covenant. The need to continue the study and dialogue on sexuality issues was also emphasized.

Meanwhile, as in the rest of North American society, sex roles and gender expectations were rapidly changing and women were moving out into the workplace and into positions of leadership in the church as well. By the 1980s in some congregations women were ordained and in most they began to serve on church boards and in other leadership positions of various kinds. This change has not been without accompanying dissension. In many [[Denominationalism|denominational]] settings, feelings have been intense as the issue has been debated as to whether equality of the sexes should necessarily mean similar roles for men and women in church life.

In conclusion, especially with regard to sexuality, Mennonites have always been a great deal more reactive than proactive, reacting to the mores and practices of the society in which they lived. The increased activity and study of sexuality since the 1960s, was stimulated more by an increasingly permissive society, the feminist movement, and the gay rights movement than by a growing awareness that Mennonites have inadequately understood and addressed the biblical understandings of the sexual dimensions of human personality and life. We have still not formulated a theology of the body nor of sexuality which can effectively undergird an ongoing program of Christian sexuality education. We have made a step in reuniting sexuality and spirituality, but what has transpired since the 1980s should be seen as the beginning of a new era in Christian male-female relationships and not as the ending of a project which articulates all that we need to say on this subject for the next generation.
= Bibliography =
Amstutz, H. Clair. Growing Up to Love : a Guide to Sex Education for Parents. Scottdale, PA, 1956.

Amstutz, H. Clair. Marriage in Today's World. (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1978.

Derstine, C. F. Manual of Sex Education for Parents, Teachers, and Students. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1943.

Derstine, C. F. The Path to Beautiful Womanhood. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1944.

Derstine, C. F. The Path to Noble Manhood. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1944.

Eshleman, Merle W. and Noah K. Mack. Christian Manhood. Scottdale, PA, 1948.

Goerzen, Sue, Wilmer Martin, and the Task Force on Sexuality (General Conference Mennonite Church, Mennonite Church). Human Sexuality in the Christian Life. 1986.

Janzen, Jacob H. Das Sexuelle Problem. Waterloo, ON, 1941-46.

Miller, John W. A Christian Approach to Sexuality. Scottdale, PA : Herald Press, 1973.

Symposium on Human Sexuality, (1978-1979). Consultation Papers : a Symposium on Human Sexuality with Particular Reference to Homosexuality / prepared and edited under the direction of John R. Mumaw. Harrisonburg, VA: Mennonite Medical Assoc., 1979.
= Additional Information =
[https://mennoharmony.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/human-sexuality-in-the-christian-life-1985.pdf Human Sexuality in the Christian Life] (General Conference Mennonite Church/Mennonite Church, 1985)

[https://anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php/Resolution_on_Human_Sexuality_(General_Conference_Mennonite_Church,_1986) Resolution on Human Sexuality] (General Conference Mennonite Church, Saskatoon, 1986)

[https://anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php?title=A_Call_to_Affirmation,_Confession,_and_Covenant_Regarding_Human_Sexuality_(Mennonite_Church,_1987) A Call to Affirmation, Confession, and Covenant Regarding Human Sexuality] (Mennonite Church, Purdue, 1987)

[https://web.archive.org/web/20160325184304/http://ljohns.ambs.edu/glbmenu.htm Resources on Homosexuality] 2016 view of a site formerly maintained by Loren Johns, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, IN (Includes many statements by Mennonite conferences and committees on this issue)
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 5, pp. 815-817|date=1989|a1_last=Krabill|a1_first=Willard S|a2_last= |a2_first= }}
[[Category:Theology]]

Sexuality

2024-02-08T20:00:12Z

JoeSpringer: /* Additional Information */ Updated obsolete weblinks

__TOC__
Few written records exist to shed light on Mennonite sexual attitudes and behavior before the early 20th century. This might be surprising when one considers how pervasive an aspect of the human personality and how important a dimension of human interaction sexuality is. However, Mennonites were apparently following the societal reluctance to acknowledge their sexuality explicitly and certainly to talk (or write) much about it. Those who can remember Mennonite congregational life in the 1920s or 1930s have witnessed a remarkable change in the openness with which sexuality is discussed. Articles in church papers, as well as conference proceedings, deal with sexuality concerns much more explicitly, again reflecting the trends in society.

Written material from earlier periods referred to aspects of genital sexual behavior much more than to sexuality as a broad dimension of personal identity and overall male-female interaction.

There was widespread Christian bias against sex solely for pleasure -- the bias was that sex is for procreation only. An understanding of this requires a look at the ancient mind-body dualism derived from Greek thought. There are some hints of this in some of the Apostle Paul's writings, especially when he writes about carnal-mindedness. The mind-body dualism was applied by the early Christians in an anti-flesh manner. That attitude stems from the early centuries of the Christian church and was carried through the Middle Ages into modern times. Part of the reason for this attitude on the part of the early Christians may have been their reaction against the licentiousness of the ruling class in Roman society. This anti-sex, anti-flesh attitude also contributed to the rise of monasticism and the affirmation of total celibacy as the most devout life-style to which Christians could aspire.

The overall mind-body dualism persisted well into the 20th century. Overcoming this dualism was made more difficult because human physical bodies were sexual bodies, and sexuality has always been a source of anxiety to society. The present writer remembers clearly the attitudes conveyed from the pulpit when he was a lad: an attitude suggesting that one almost needed to be ashamed of one's body; the body was identified with "the flesh" -- the body was seen as a major source of temptation which would lead to sin. In recent years, however, these attitudes are changing and the church is beginning to affirm the goodness of God's marvelous [[Creation, Theology of|creation]], the human body. The mind-body dichotomy is also lessening as we begin to focus on and understand the meaning of wholeness and shalom.

Because of the scarcity of [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] writing on sexuality, we know very little about the Anabaptists' sexual attitudes. What they did write was standard condemnation of sexual immorality. Their attitudes seem to have been common to the Christians of their times, but their practice was that of a more consistent following of those attitudes, a greater adherence to their beliefs and standards. Evidence of their exceptional practice (e.g., less sexual promiscuity) is gleaned from the writings of those who opposed them. One Reformed pastor, [[Thormann, Gorg (1655-1708)|Georg Thormann]], author of [[Probier-Stein|Probier-Stein]] (1696) found it necessary, in order to be credible, to praise Swiss Brethren for their higher-than-average Christian morality.

We also have record of their prohibition of behaviors such as adultery. In the congregational records at [[Montbéliard (Doubs, Franche-Comté, France)|Montbéliard ]]in [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] there is reference to certain members who were excommunicated "for reasons of adultery." In the early 1800s church rules of congregations in the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]] included prohibitions against adultery and prostitution.

As part of the Radical Reformation Anabaptists experienced some acute and perhaps unique sexual problems. In some cases there were sexual irregularities. For example, when a mate would not go along with a spouse in joining the Anabaptists, the issue of fidelity to one's unbelieving spouse came into question. In some cases a form of bigamy developed in which a "spiritual marriage" formed with fellow Anabaptist adherents coexisted alongside a previous marriage. Such irregularities probably involved only a handful, however. In [[Münster Anabaptists|Münster]] there apparently were instances of polygamy, not as a demonstration of sexual license but for purposes of procreation only, there being more women than men in the movement, a situation exacerbated by persecution.

[[File:Amstutz-H_Clair.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''H. Clair Amstutz. Scan courtesy Archives of [http://www.mennoniteusa.org/executive-board/archives/ Mennonite Church USA-Goshen]. Hist. Mss. 4-299'']]
Since the 1920s, a steadily increasing amount of information is available because Mennonites have begun to speak and write a great deal more about sexual attitudes and practices. In August 1929, C. D. Esch spoke at the Mennonite Church (MC) General Conference on Christian standards of social purity. In 1941, in [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], an article appeared entitled "The Sexual Problem"(!) In the early 1950s a medical doctor, H. Clair Amstutz became a prolific and well-known writer on sexual, marriage, and family topics, concluding with his Marriage in today's world in 1978. [[Derstine, Clayton Freed (1891-1967)|C. F. Derstine]], George B. Brunk II, John W. Miller, Howard Charles, and Merle Eshleman also wrote on sexual issues and consistent ly upheld traditional standards of sexual morality.

In the late 1960s, with the development of the "free speech movement" and the [[Vietnam War (1954-75)|Vietnam War]] protests with their attack on the establishment and its tenets, a societal loosening of sexual values evolved which came to be known as "the new morality." Characteristics of the new morality included generally greater permissiveness, less commitment to marriage, and an abandonment of the standard of genital intercourse within marriage only. Articles condemning "the new morality" began to appear in many Mennonite church papers. Then in August 1968, a "Conference on Christianity and Sexuality" was convened on the campus of the Mennonite Biblical Seminary in Elkhart, Ind. The conference came about as a result of Mennonites attending several ecumenical church meetings on sexuality. The World Council of Churches conducted a "Consultation on Sexual Ethics" in Switzerland in 1964. The participants at that meeting were unable to formulate a theology of sexuality acceptable to those present and they acknowledged that the churches must accept some responsibility for the chaos which existed. Following this, in May 1966, the second North American Conference on Church and Family was held in Hamilton, Ont. The Mennonites attending the Hamilton conference met one evening to raise the question of what the conference had to say to Mennonites. It was acknowledged that the Mennonite denominations had given little attention to the issues raised, that more attention was needed, and that a conference should be held; hence the 1968 Elkhart meeting. At the Elkhart "Conference on Christianity and Sexuality," 91 participants engaged in dialogue, debate, and study of the papers presented by various participants. The conference was descriptive and analytical, and it was helpful to hear each other, but no unified statement on sexuality emerged.

In the late 1970s Mennonites became increasingly aware of the homosexually-oriented persons among them, and as people with same-sex orientation became more visible and more assertive the churches reacted (generally in a strongly negative way). Issues such as homosexuality, the growing [[Divorce and Remarriage|divorce]] rate, elective abortions among Mennonites, and an increasing incidence of non-marital sexual intercourse led a number of Mennonite leaders from various conferences to request the [[Mennonite Medical Association|Mennonite Medical Association]] (an inter-Mennonite organization of physicians and dentists) to sponsor a Symposium on Human Sexuality. This symposium met in two sessions (September 1978 and April 1979) to study a variety of sexuality issues. Inasmuch as homosexuality was the major stimulus for the symposium, most of the presentations had both sessions address the issues surrounding same-sex orientation.

In May 1980 another seminar on human sexuality was held at [[Laurelville Mennonite Church Center (Mount Pleasant, Pennsylvania, USA)|Laurelville Mennonite Church Center]] as a follow-up to the two Mennonite Medical Association consultations in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]]. In this meeting, as well as in the Chicago consultations, the Mennonite denominations were called upon to articulate a theology of the body, i.e., a sexual theology. The need for broad-based sex education programs in the local congregation was emphasized; and the church was challenged to do more by way of understanding homosexuality, to affirm singleness as a valid option, and to articulate meaningful statements on sexual ethics in the context of the new challenges presented by society. The church was also called upon to be a healing [[Community|community]] for the many who are victimized by a variety of sexual abuses and coercion. Mennonites were becoming increasingly aware that all forms of sexual exploitation existed within Mennonite congregations.

In 1981, the General Conference Mennonites (GCM) and the Mennonite Church (MC) jointly appointed a Human Sexuality Study Committee. This committee met three times a year from January 1982 to January 1987. It developed a study guide entitled Human sexuality in the Christian life which was submitted to the congregations of both denominations for study over the period from 1984 to 1987. The [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]] at Saskatoon in 1986 and the Mennonite Church General Assembly at Purdue in 1987 adopted similar statements reaffirming the goodness of sexuality and its place of honor and joy in the human family. Both called their members to confession and to covenant. Both groups reiterated their understanding that the [[Bible |Bible]] teaches that genital intercourse is reserved for heterosexual marriage and teaches the sanctity of the marriage covenant. The need to continue the study and dialogue on sexuality issues was also emphasized.

Meanwhile, as in the rest of North American society, sex roles and gender expectations were rapidly changing and women were moving out into the workplace and into positions of leadership in the church as well. By the 1980s in some congregations women were ordained and in most they began to serve on church boards and in other leadership positions of various kinds. This change has not been without accompanying dissension. In many [[Denominationalism|denominational]] settings, feelings have been intense as the issue has been debated as to whether equality of the sexes should necessarily mean similar roles for men and women in church life.

In conclusion, especially with regard to sexuality, Mennonites have always been a great deal more reactive than proactive, reacting to the mores and practices of the society in which they lived. The increased activity and study of sexuality since the 1960s, was stimulated more by an increasingly permissive society, the feminist movement, and the gay rights movement than by a growing awareness that Mennonites have inadequately understood and addressed the biblical understandings of the sexual dimensions of human personality and life. We have still not formulated a theology of the body nor of sexuality which can effectively undergird an ongoing program of Christian sexuality education. We have made a step in reuniting sexuality and spirituality, but what has transpired since the 1980s should be seen as the beginning of a new era in Christian male-female relationships and not as the ending of a project which articulates all that we need to say on this subject for the next generation.
= Bibliography =
Amstutz, H. Clair. Growing Up to Love : a Guide to Sex Education for Parents. Scottdale, PA, 1956.

Amstutz, H. Clair. Marriage in Today's World. (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1978.

Derstine, C. F. Manual of Sex Education for Parents, Teachers, and Students. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1943.

Derstine, C. F. The Path to Beautiful Womanhood. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1944.

Derstine, C. F. The Path to Noble Manhood. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1944.

Eshleman, Merle W. and Noah K. Mack. Christian Manhood. Scottdale, PA, 1948.

Goerzen, Sue, Wilmer Martin, and the Task Force on Sexuality (General Conference Mennonite Church, Mennonite Church). Human Sexuality in the Christian Life. 1986.

Janzen, Jacob H. Das Sexuelle Problem. Waterloo, ON, 1941-46.

Miller, John W. A Christian Approach to Sexuality. Scottdale, PA : Herald Press, 1973.

Symposium on Human Sexuality, (1978-1979). Consultation Papers : a Symposium on Human Sexuality with Particular Reference to Homosexuality / prepared and edited under the direction of John R. Mumaw. Harrisonburg, VA: Mennonite Medical Assoc., 1979.
= Additional Information =
[https://mennoharmony.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/human-sexuality-in-the-christian-life-1985.pdf Human sexuality in the Christian life] (General Conference Mennonite Church/Mennonite Church, 1985)

[https://anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php/Resolution_on_Human_Sexuality_(General_Conference_Mennonite_Church,_1986) Resolution on Human Sexuality] (General Conference Mennonite Church, Saskatoon, 1986)

[https://anabaptistwiki.org/mediawiki/index.php?title=A_Call_to_Affirmation,_Confession,_and_Covenant_Regarding_Human_Sexuality_(Mennonite_Church,_1987) A Call to Affirmation, Confession, and Covenant Regarding Human Sexuality] (Mennonite Church, Purdue, 1987)

[https://web.archive.org/web/20160325184304/http://ljohns.ambs.edu/glbmenu.htm Resources on Homosexuality] 2016 view of a site formerly maintained by Loren Johns, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, IN (Includes many statements by Mennonite conferences and committees on this issue)
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 5, pp. 815-817|date=1989|a1_last=Krabill|a1_first=Willard S|a2_last= |a2_first= }}
[[Category:Theology]]

Sexuality

2024-02-08T19:48:51Z

JoeSpringer: Changed obsolete link to another source

__TOC__
Few written records exist to shed light on Mennonite sexual attitudes and behavior before the early 20th century. This might be surprising when one considers how pervasive an aspect of the human personality and how important a dimension of human interaction sexuality is. However, Mennonites were apparently following the societal reluctance to acknowledge their sexuality explicitly and certainly to talk (or write) much about it. Those who can remember Mennonite congregational life in the 1920s or 1930s have witnessed a remarkable change in the openness with which sexuality is discussed. Articles in church papers, as well as conference proceedings, deal with sexuality concerns much more explicitly, again reflecting the trends in society.

Written material from earlier periods referred to aspects of genital sexual behavior much more than to sexuality as a broad dimension of personal identity and overall male-female interaction.

There was widespread Christian bias against sex solely for pleasure -- the bias was that sex is for procreation only. An understanding of this requires a look at the ancient mind-body dualism derived from Greek thought. There are some hints of this in some of the Apostle Paul's writings, especially when he writes about carnal-mindedness. The mind-body dualism was applied by the early Christians in an anti-flesh manner. That attitude stems from the early centuries of the Christian church and was carried through the Middle Ages into modern times. Part of the reason for this attitude on the part of the early Christians may have been their reaction against the licentiousness of the ruling class in Roman society. This anti-sex, anti-flesh attitude also contributed to the rise of monasticism and the affirmation of total celibacy as the most devout life-style to which Christians could aspire.

The overall mind-body dualism persisted well into the 20th century. Overcoming this dualism was made more difficult because human physical bodies were sexual bodies, and sexuality has always been a source of anxiety to society. The present writer remembers clearly the attitudes conveyed from the pulpit when he was a lad: an attitude suggesting that one almost needed to be ashamed of one's body; the body was identified with "the flesh" -- the body was seen as a major source of temptation which would lead to sin. In recent years, however, these attitudes are changing and the church is beginning to affirm the goodness of God's marvelous [[Creation, Theology of|creation]], the human body. The mind-body dichotomy is also lessening as we begin to focus on and understand the meaning of wholeness and shalom.

Because of the scarcity of [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] writing on sexuality, we know very little about the Anabaptists' sexual attitudes. What they did write was standard condemnation of sexual immorality. Their attitudes seem to have been common to the Christians of their times, but their practice was that of a more consistent following of those attitudes, a greater adherence to their beliefs and standards. Evidence of their exceptional practice (e.g., less sexual promiscuity) is gleaned from the writings of those who opposed them. One Reformed pastor, [[Thormann, Gorg (1655-1708)|Georg Thormann]], author of [[Probier-Stein|Probier-Stein]] (1696) found it necessary, in order to be credible, to praise Swiss Brethren for their higher-than-average Christian morality.

We also have record of their prohibition of behaviors such as adultery. In the congregational records at [[Montbéliard (Doubs, Franche-Comté, France)|Montbéliard ]]in [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] there is reference to certain members who were excommunicated "for reasons of adultery." In the early 1800s church rules of congregations in the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]] included prohibitions against adultery and prostitution.

As part of the Radical Reformation Anabaptists experienced some acute and perhaps unique sexual problems. In some cases there were sexual irregularities. For example, when a mate would not go along with a spouse in joining the Anabaptists, the issue of fidelity to one's unbelieving spouse came into question. In some cases a form of bigamy developed in which a "spiritual marriage" formed with fellow Anabaptist adherents coexisted alongside a previous marriage. Such irregularities probably involved only a handful, however. In [[Münster Anabaptists|Münster]] there apparently were instances of polygamy, not as a demonstration of sexual license but for purposes of procreation only, there being more women than men in the movement, a situation exacerbated by persecution.

[[File:Amstutz-H_Clair.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''H. Clair Amstutz. Scan courtesy Archives of [http://www.mennoniteusa.org/executive-board/archives/ Mennonite Church USA-Goshen]. Hist. Mss. 4-299'']]
Since the 1920s, a steadily increasing amount of information is available because Mennonites have begun to speak and write a great deal more about sexual attitudes and practices. In August 1929, C. D. Esch spoke at the Mennonite Church (MC) General Conference on Christian standards of social purity. In 1941, in [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], an article appeared entitled "The Sexual Problem"(!) In the early 1950s a medical doctor, H. Clair Amstutz became a prolific and well-known writer on sexual, marriage, and family topics, concluding with his Marriage in today's world in 1978. [[Derstine, Clayton Freed (1891-1967)|C. F. Derstine]], George B. Brunk II, John W. Miller, Howard Charles, and Merle Eshleman also wrote on sexual issues and consistent ly upheld traditional standards of sexual morality.

In the late 1960s, with the development of the "free speech movement" and the [[Vietnam War (1954-75)|Vietnam War]] protests with their attack on the establishment and its tenets, a societal loosening of sexual values evolved which came to be known as "the new morality." Characteristics of the new morality included generally greater permissiveness, less commitment to marriage, and an abandonment of the standard of genital intercourse within marriage only. Articles condemning "the new morality" began to appear in many Mennonite church papers. Then in August 1968, a "Conference on Christianity and Sexuality" was convened on the campus of the Mennonite Biblical Seminary in Elkhart, Ind. The conference came about as a result of Mennonites attending several ecumenical church meetings on sexuality. The World Council of Churches conducted a "Consultation on Sexual Ethics" in Switzerland in 1964. The participants at that meeting were unable to formulate a theology of sexuality acceptable to those present and they acknowledged that the churches must accept some responsibility for the chaos which existed. Following this, in May 1966, the second North American Conference on Church and Family was held in Hamilton, Ont. The Mennonites attending the Hamilton conference met one evening to raise the question of what the conference had to say to Mennonites. It was acknowledged that the Mennonite denominations had given little attention to the issues raised, that more attention was needed, and that a conference should be held; hence the 1968 Elkhart meeting. At the Elkhart "Conference on Christianity and Sexuality," 91 participants engaged in dialogue, debate, and study of the papers presented by various participants. The conference was descriptive and analytical, and it was helpful to hear each other, but no unified statement on sexuality emerged.

In the late 1970s Mennonites became increasingly aware of the homosexually-oriented persons among them, and as people with same-sex orientation became more visible and more assertive the churches reacted (generally in a strongly negative way). Issues such as homosexuality, the growing [[Divorce and Remarriage|divorce]] rate, elective abortions among Mennonites, and an increasing incidence of non-marital sexual intercourse led a number of Mennonite leaders from various conferences to request the [[Mennonite Medical Association|Mennonite Medical Association]] (an inter-Mennonite organization of physicians and dentists) to sponsor a Symposium on Human Sexuality. This symposium met in two sessions (September 1978 and April 1979) to study a variety of sexuality issues. Inasmuch as homosexuality was the major stimulus for the symposium, most of the presentations had both sessions address the issues surrounding same-sex orientation.

In May 1980 another seminar on human sexuality was held at [[Laurelville Mennonite Church Center (Mount Pleasant, Pennsylvania, USA)|Laurelville Mennonite Church Center]] as a follow-up to the two Mennonite Medical Association consultations in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]]. In this meeting, as well as in the Chicago consultations, the Mennonite denominations were called upon to articulate a theology of the body, i.e., a sexual theology. The need for broad-based sex education programs in the local congregation was emphasized; and the church was challenged to do more by way of understanding homosexuality, to affirm singleness as a valid option, and to articulate meaningful statements on sexual ethics in the context of the new challenges presented by society. The church was also called upon to be a healing [[Community|community]] for the many who are victimized by a variety of sexual abuses and coercion. Mennonites were becoming increasingly aware that all forms of sexual exploitation existed within Mennonite congregations.

In 1981, the General Conference Mennonites (GCM) and the Mennonite Church (MC) jointly appointed a Human Sexuality Study Committee. This committee met three times a year from January 1982 to January 1987. It developed a study guide entitled Human sexuality in the Christian life which was submitted to the congregations of both denominations for study over the period from 1984 to 1987. The [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]] at Saskatoon in 1986 and the Mennonite Church General Assembly at Purdue in 1987 adopted similar statements reaffirming the goodness of sexuality and its place of honor and joy in the human family. Both called their members to confession and to covenant. Both groups reiterated their understanding that the [[Bible |Bible]] teaches that genital intercourse is reserved for heterosexual marriage and teaches the sanctity of the marriage covenant. The need to continue the study and dialogue on sexuality issues was also emphasized.

Meanwhile, as in the rest of North American society, sex roles and gender expectations were rapidly changing and women were moving out into the workplace and into positions of leadership in the church as well. By the 1980s in some congregations women were ordained and in most they began to serve on church boards and in other leadership positions of various kinds. This change has not been without accompanying dissension. In many [[Denominationalism|denominational]] settings, feelings have been intense as the issue has been debated as to whether equality of the sexes should necessarily mean similar roles for men and women in church life.

In conclusion, especially with regard to sexuality, Mennonites have always been a great deal more reactive than proactive, reacting to the mores and practices of the society in which they lived. The increased activity and study of sexuality since the 1960s, was stimulated more by an increasingly permissive society, the feminist movement, and the gay rights movement than by a growing awareness that Mennonites have inadequately understood and addressed the biblical understandings of the sexual dimensions of human personality and life. We have still not formulated a theology of the body nor of sexuality which can effectively undergird an ongoing program of Christian sexuality education. We have made a step in reuniting sexuality and spirituality, but what has transpired since the 1980s should be seen as the beginning of a new era in Christian male-female relationships and not as the ending of a project which articulates all that we need to say on this subject for the next generation.
= Bibliography =
Amstutz, H. Clair. Growing Up to Love : a Guide to Sex Education for Parents. Scottdale, PA, 1956.

Amstutz, H. Clair. Marriage in Today's World. (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1978.

Derstine, C. F. Manual of Sex Education for Parents, Teachers, and Students. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1943.

Derstine, C. F. The Path to Beautiful Womanhood. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1944.

Derstine, C. F. The Path to Noble Manhood. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1944.

Eshleman, Merle W. and Noah K. Mack. Christian Manhood. Scottdale, PA, 1948.

Goerzen, Sue, Wilmer Martin, and the Task Force on Sexuality (General Conference Mennonite Church, Mennonite Church). Human Sexuality in the Christian Life. 1986.

Janzen, Jacob H. Das Sexuelle Problem. Waterloo, ON, 1941-46.

Miller, John W. A Christian Approach to Sexuality. Scottdale, PA : Herald Press, 1973.

Symposium on Human Sexuality, (1978-1979). Consultation Papers : a Symposium on Human Sexuality with Particular Reference to Homosexuality / prepared and edited under the direction of John R. Mumaw. Harrisonburg, VA: Mennonite Medical Assoc., 1979.
= Additional Information =
[https://mennoharmony.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/human-sexuality-in-the-christian-life-1985.pdf Human sexuality in the Christian life] (General Conference Mennonite Church/Mennonite Church, 1985)

[http://ljohns.ambs.edu/Resolutions.htm Resolutions on Human Sexuality] (Purdue/Saskatoon statements of Mennonite Church/General Conference Mennonite Church, 1987/1986)

[https://web.archive.org/web/20160325184304/http://ljohns.ambs.edu/glbmenu.htm Resources on Homosexuality] 2016 view of a site formerly maintained by Loren Johns, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, IN (Includes many statements by Mennonite conferences and committees on this issue)
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 5, pp. 815-817|date=1989|a1_last=Krabill|a1_first=Willard S|a2_last= |a2_first= }}
[[Category:Theology]]

Sexuality

2024-02-08T19:46:28Z

JoeSpringer: Added link to Wayback Machine version of Loren Johns' website (no longer live on the Internet)

__TOC__
Few written records exist to shed light on Mennonite sexual attitudes and behavior before the early 20th century. This might be surprising when one considers how pervasive an aspect of the human personality and how important a dimension of human interaction sexuality is. However, Mennonites were apparently following the societal reluctance to acknowledge their sexuality explicitly and certainly to talk (or write) much about it. Those who can remember Mennonite congregational life in the 1920s or 1930s have witnessed a remarkable change in the openness with which sexuality is discussed. Articles in church papers, as well as conference proceedings, deal with sexuality concerns much more explicitly, again reflecting the trends in society.

Written material from earlier periods referred to aspects of genital sexual behavior much more than to sexuality as a broad dimension of personal identity and overall male-female interaction.

There was widespread Christian bias against sex solely for pleasure -- the bias was that sex is for procreation only. An understanding of this requires a look at the ancient mind-body dualism derived from Greek thought. There are some hints of this in some of the Apostle Paul's writings, especially when he writes about carnal-mindedness. The mind-body dualism was applied by the early Christians in an anti-flesh manner. That attitude stems from the early centuries of the Christian church and was carried through the Middle Ages into modern times. Part of the reason for this attitude on the part of the early Christians may have been their reaction against the licentiousness of the ruling class in Roman society. This anti-sex, anti-flesh attitude also contributed to the rise of monasticism and the affirmation of total celibacy as the most devout life-style to which Christians could aspire.

The overall mind-body dualism persisted well into the 20th century. Overcoming this dualism was made more difficult because human physical bodies were sexual bodies, and sexuality has always been a source of anxiety to society. The present writer remembers clearly the attitudes conveyed from the pulpit when he was a lad: an attitude suggesting that one almost needed to be ashamed of one's body; the body was identified with "the flesh" -- the body was seen as a major source of temptation which would lead to sin. In recent years, however, these attitudes are changing and the church is beginning to affirm the goodness of God's marvelous [[Creation, Theology of|creation]], the human body. The mind-body dichotomy is also lessening as we begin to focus on and understand the meaning of wholeness and shalom.

Because of the scarcity of [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] writing on sexuality, we know very little about the Anabaptists' sexual attitudes. What they did write was standard condemnation of sexual immorality. Their attitudes seem to have been common to the Christians of their times, but their practice was that of a more consistent following of those attitudes, a greater adherence to their beliefs and standards. Evidence of their exceptional practice (e.g., less sexual promiscuity) is gleaned from the writings of those who opposed them. One Reformed pastor, [[Thormann, Gorg (1655-1708)|Georg Thormann]], author of [[Probier-Stein|Probier-Stein]] (1696) found it necessary, in order to be credible, to praise Swiss Brethren for their higher-than-average Christian morality.

We also have record of their prohibition of behaviors such as adultery. In the congregational records at [[Montbéliard (Doubs, Franche-Comté, France)|Montbéliard ]]in [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] there is reference to certain members who were excommunicated "for reasons of adultery." In the early 1800s church rules of congregations in the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]] included prohibitions against adultery and prostitution.

As part of the Radical Reformation Anabaptists experienced some acute and perhaps unique sexual problems. In some cases there were sexual irregularities. For example, when a mate would not go along with a spouse in joining the Anabaptists, the issue of fidelity to one's unbelieving spouse came into question. In some cases a form of bigamy developed in which a "spiritual marriage" formed with fellow Anabaptist adherents coexisted alongside a previous marriage. Such irregularities probably involved only a handful, however. In [[Münster Anabaptists|Münster]] there apparently were instances of polygamy, not as a demonstration of sexual license but for purposes of procreation only, there being more women than men in the movement, a situation exacerbated by persecution.

[[File:Amstutz-H_Clair.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''H. Clair Amstutz. Scan courtesy Archives of [http://www.mennoniteusa.org/executive-board/archives/ Mennonite Church USA-Goshen]. Hist. Mss. 4-299'']]
Since the 1920s, a steadily increasing amount of information is available because Mennonites have begun to speak and write a great deal more about sexual attitudes and practices. In August 1929, C. D. Esch spoke at the Mennonite Church (MC) General Conference on Christian standards of social purity. In 1941, in [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], an article appeared entitled "The Sexual Problem"(!) In the early 1950s a medical doctor, H. Clair Amstutz became a prolific and well-known writer on sexual, marriage, and family topics, concluding with his Marriage in today's world in 1978. [[Derstine, Clayton Freed (1891-1967)|C. F. Derstine]], George B. Brunk II, John W. Miller, Howard Charles, and Merle Eshleman also wrote on sexual issues and consistent ly upheld traditional standards of sexual morality.

In the late 1960s, with the development of the "free speech movement" and the [[Vietnam War (1954-75)|Vietnam War]] protests with their attack on the establishment and its tenets, a societal loosening of sexual values evolved which came to be known as "the new morality." Characteristics of the new morality included generally greater permissiveness, less commitment to marriage, and an abandonment of the standard of genital intercourse within marriage only. Articles condemning "the new morality" began to appear in many Mennonite church papers. Then in August 1968, a "Conference on Christianity and Sexuality" was convened on the campus of the Mennonite Biblical Seminary in Elkhart, Ind. The conference came about as a result of Mennonites attending several ecumenical church meetings on sexuality. The World Council of Churches conducted a "Consultation on Sexual Ethics" in Switzerland in 1964. The participants at that meeting were unable to formulate a theology of sexuality acceptable to those present and they acknowledged that the churches must accept some responsibility for the chaos which existed. Following this, in May 1966, the second North American Conference on Church and Family was held in Hamilton, Ont. The Mennonites attending the Hamilton conference met one evening to raise the question of what the conference had to say to Mennonites. It was acknowledged that the Mennonite denominations had given little attention to the issues raised, that more attention was needed, and that a conference should be held; hence the 1968 Elkhart meeting. At the Elkhart "Conference on Christianity and Sexuality," 91 participants engaged in dialogue, debate, and study of the papers presented by various participants. The conference was descriptive and analytical, and it was helpful to hear each other, but no unified statement on sexuality emerged.

In the late 1970s Mennonites became increasingly aware of the homosexually-oriented persons among them, and as people with same-sex orientation became more visible and more assertive the churches reacted (generally in a strongly negative way). Issues such as homosexuality, the growing [[Divorce and Remarriage|divorce]] rate, elective abortions among Mennonites, and an increasing incidence of non-marital sexual intercourse led a number of Mennonite leaders from various conferences to request the [[Mennonite Medical Association|Mennonite Medical Association]] (an inter-Mennonite organization of physicians and dentists) to sponsor a Symposium on Human Sexuality. This symposium met in two sessions (September 1978 and April 1979) to study a variety of sexuality issues. Inasmuch as homosexuality was the major stimulus for the symposium, most of the presentations had both sessions address the issues surrounding same-sex orientation.

In May 1980 another seminar on human sexuality was held at [[Laurelville Mennonite Church Center (Mount Pleasant, Pennsylvania, USA)|Laurelville Mennonite Church Center]] as a follow-up to the two Mennonite Medical Association consultations in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]]. In this meeting, as well as in the Chicago consultations, the Mennonite denominations were called upon to articulate a theology of the body, i.e., a sexual theology. The need for broad-based sex education programs in the local congregation was emphasized; and the church was challenged to do more by way of understanding homosexuality, to affirm singleness as a valid option, and to articulate meaningful statements on sexual ethics in the context of the new challenges presented by society. The church was also called upon to be a healing [[Community|community]] for the many who are victimized by a variety of sexual abuses and coercion. Mennonites were becoming increasingly aware that all forms of sexual exploitation existed within Mennonite congregations.

In 1981, the General Conference Mennonites (GCM) and the Mennonite Church (MC) jointly appointed a Human Sexuality Study Committee. This committee met three times a year from January 1982 to January 1987. It developed a study guide entitled Human sexuality in the Christian life which was submitted to the congregations of both denominations for study over the period from 1984 to 1987. The [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite Church]] at Saskatoon in 1986 and the Mennonite Church General Assembly at Purdue in 1987 adopted similar statements reaffirming the goodness of sexuality and its place of honor and joy in the human family. Both called their members to confession and to covenant. Both groups reiterated their understanding that the [[Bible |Bible]] teaches that genital intercourse is reserved for heterosexual marriage and teaches the sanctity of the marriage covenant. The need to continue the study and dialogue on sexuality issues was also emphasized.

Meanwhile, as in the rest of North American society, sex roles and gender expectations were rapidly changing and women were moving out into the workplace and into positions of leadership in the church as well. By the 1980s in some congregations women were ordained and in most they began to serve on church boards and in other leadership positions of various kinds. This change has not been without accompanying dissension. In many [[Denominationalism|denominational]] settings, feelings have been intense as the issue has been debated as to whether equality of the sexes should necessarily mean similar roles for men and women in church life.

In conclusion, especially with regard to sexuality, Mennonites have always been a great deal more reactive than proactive, reacting to the mores and practices of the society in which they lived. The increased activity and study of sexuality since the 1960s, was stimulated more by an increasingly permissive society, the feminist movement, and the gay rights movement than by a growing awareness that Mennonites have inadequately understood and addressed the biblical understandings of the sexual dimensions of human personality and life. We have still not formulated a theology of the body nor of sexuality which can effectively undergird an ongoing program of Christian sexuality education. We have made a step in reuniting sexuality and spirituality, but what has transpired since the 1980s should be seen as the beginning of a new era in Christian male-female relationships and not as the ending of a project which articulates all that we need to say on this subject for the next generation.
= Bibliography =
Amstutz, H. Clair. Growing Up to Love : a Guide to Sex Education for Parents. Scottdale, PA, 1956.

Amstutz, H. Clair. Marriage in Today's World. (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1978.

Derstine, C. F. Manual of Sex Education for Parents, Teachers, and Students. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1943.

Derstine, C. F. The Path to Beautiful Womanhood. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1944.

Derstine, C. F. The Path to Noble Manhood. Kitchener, 1942; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1944.

Eshleman, Merle W. and Noah K. Mack. Christian Manhood. Scottdale, PA, 1948.

Goerzen, Sue, Wilmer Martin, and the Task Force on Sexuality (General Conference Mennonite Church, Mennonite Church). Human Sexuality in the Christian Life. 1986.

Janzen, Jacob H. Das Sexuelle Problem. Waterloo, ON, 1941-46.

Miller, John W. A Christian Approach to Sexuality. Scottdale, PA : Herald Press, 1973.

Symposium on Human Sexuality, (1978-1979). Consultation Papers : a Symposium on Human Sexuality with Particular Reference to Homosexuality / prepared and edited under the direction of John R. Mumaw. Harrisonburg, VA: Mennonite Medical Assoc., 1979.
= Additional Information =
[http://ljohns.ambs.edu/HSCL/hscl0.htm Human sexuality in the Christian life] (General Conference Mennonite Church/Mennonite Church, 1985)

[http://ljohns.ambs.edu/Resolutions.htm Resolutions on Human Sexuality] (Purdue/Saskatoon statements of Mennonite Church/General Conference Mennonite Church, 1987/1986)

[https://web.archive.org/web/20160325184304/http://ljohns.ambs.edu/glbmenu.htm Resources on Homosexuality] 2016 view of a site formerly maintained by Loren Johns, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, IN (Includes many statements by Mennonite conferences and committees on this issue)
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 5, pp. 815-817|date=1989|a1_last=Krabill|a1_first=Willard S|a2_last= |a2_first= }}
[[Category:Theology]]

Salminger, Sigmund (16th century)

2023-10-27T17:18:58Z

JoeSpringer: Added sentence about Ausz was Grund die Lieb entspringt at beginning of final paragraph. (1959 ME had mistakenly included an equivalent sentence in the article on Jacob Dachser, now removed there.)

Sigmund Salminger, a former monastic priest (a Franciscan) of [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]], [[Bayern Federal State (Germany)|Bavaria]], Germany, was one of the founders of the [[Augsburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg]] [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] congregation. He and his wife Anna, who was a faithful companion to him, were baptized in March 1527 by [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut]] on the occasion of his second visit to Augsburg, which lasted nine or ten days, and was chosen by lot as Vorsteher of the Augsburg congregation at its first organization. He was, however, seized soon after 15 Septmber 1527. Among those he baptized was the "Mangmeisterin" Plöck(in), who was expelled from the city with her infant of eight weeks. In addition he baptized several peasants who did not live in Augsburg, as well as Sebastian Vischgatter, a citizen, Elisabeth, the wife of Gall Vischer, and Katharina, wife of Hans Kunig, the stone mason, who had recanted on 3 October 1527, but was rearrested in May 1528.

After spending more than three years in prison Salminger recanted on 17 December 1530, and was released. His written recantation and also a letter he wrote to the council requesting permission for his wife's return to the city (already previously published by Greiff) were published by Schletterer (180, 182). Penniless and a physical wreck Salminger left the prison. Since he was unable to pay his board he was ordered in March 1531 to leave the city; but it was impossible for him to comply on account of the inclement weather and the state of his health. He was granted a brief respite, but at its expiration was just as wretched as before. He therefore wrote a petition to the council, asking permission to stay and offering his services.

In 1526 under the title Ausz was Grund die Lieb entspringt, Salminger published the conclusion of a medieval work ''Das Buch von geistlicher Armut'' to which he wrote the preface. Wackernagel published four of Salminger's hymns (pp. 807-11). Salminger had poetic and musical gifts which poured themselves out in religious songs. In the oldest hymnal of [[Augsburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg]] some of the finest hymns are those from Salminger's pen.
= Bibliography =
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. XXX (1890): 270-72.

Greiff. Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Schulen. Augsburg, 1858: 146.

Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. ''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe; Schneider, 1913-1967: v. 4.

Roth, Friedrich. "Zur Geschichte der Wiedertäufer in Oberschwaben." Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereins für Schwaben und Neuburg I (1874): 212; XXVIII (1901): 4, 114 ff.

Schletterer, H. M. Monatshefte für Musikgeschichte XXI (1889): 177-86.

Schottenloher, Karl. Philipp Ulhart. Munich, 1921: 81-83.

Wackernagel, Philipp. Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis zu Anfang des XVII. Jahrhunderts, 5 vols. Leipzig, 1864-1877. Reprinted Hildesheim: G. Olms, 1964: v. 3, 807-11.
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 4, p. 408|date=1959|a1_last=Hege|a1_first=Christian|a2_last= |a2_first= }}

Dachser, Jakob (1486-1567)

2023-10-27T14:42:27Z

JoeSpringer: Removed erroneous next-to-last sentence of article: "Dachser also published in Augsburg in 1526 a medieval mystical writing, Aus was Grund die Lieb entspringt, to which he wrote the preface." The 1526 preface was by Salminger rather than Dachser.

Jakob Dachser was an elder of the [[Augsburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg]] [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] in 1527. Though his work covered only a brief period, yet under his and [[Salminger, Sigmund (16th century)|Siegmund Salminger's]] leadership the congregation grew rapidly, reaching in a short time eleven hundred members and including a large part of the population of the city.

He was born in [[Ingolstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Ingolstadt]] (according to the chronicle of Clemens Jäger), served as a Catholic priest in Vienna, and was compelled to flee because he had defended [[Luther, Martin (1483-1546)|Luther's]] writings, whereupon he returned to Ingolstadt and in 1523 acquired his Master's degree there. He was arraigned before the court of the [[Ludwig X, Duke of Bavaria (1495-1545)|Duke of Bavaria]] for improperly disputing and defending Lutheran ideas, and was cross-examined by several professors. The cross-examination revealed that he shared Luther's views on the Mass and fasting. On the duke's orders he was taken in chains to the bishop of Eichstätt, and after a period of imprisonment was expelled from the diocese. In 1526 he found refuge in Augsburg, earning his living by teaching. He was baptized here by [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut ]] in February 1527, and was appointed assistant head of the Augsburg Anabaptist congregation, and served with true devotion and increasing success. He baptized the preacher Hans Leopold, who was martyred at Augsburg on 25 April 1528. The rapid growth of the congregation aroused the malice of the Lutheran clergy, who persuaded the council to suppress the Anabaptists. In the fall of 1527 numerous individual arrests were made, religious meetings forcibly broken up and the participants arrested. Dachser escaped capture, but not wishing to desert his congregation he presented himself to the mayor; he was so thoroughly convinced of the legality of his teachings and acts that he did not consider the possibility of danger in a Protestant city after an explanation of his position to the council. But on 25 August 1527, five days after the [[Martyrs' Synod|Martyrs' Synod]], in which he had participated, he was arrested. The Lutheran preachers Rhegius, Frosch, [[Agricola, Stephan (ca. 1491-1547)|Agricola]] and Keller disputed long with Dachser and his fellow prisoners [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hut]], Gross and [[Salminger, Sigmund (16th century)|Salminger]], but were unable to make them forsake their convictions. To make them more amenable they were put into the dungeon. Voices were heard in the council recommending capital punishment. It was finally decided to leave them in prison until they recanted out of sheer physical exhaustion.

Dachser's wife Ottilie, who entered the service of Margrave George of Brandenburg soon after his arrest, interceded for his release. The margrave sponsored her petition before the council, but always received the reply that there was no possibility of release for Dachser unless he recanted. Ulrich Heckel, who later became a master of the weavers' guild, also presented petitions to the council, stating that before his arrest Dachser had served faithfully as a teacher in Augsburg, "whose equal will not soon be found; of this I have many honest witnesses at Augsburg among the rich and the poor." When "some of the Anabaptists asserted themselves, prophesied and held peculiar opinions he counseled against it; thus he acquired such disfavor among them that they wished to excommunicate him."

The council was relentless. Finally after confinement of more than three years Dachser yielded to the incessant entreaty of his wife and the persuasion of the clergymen [[Musculus, Wolfgang (1497-1563)|Wolfgang Musculus]] and Bonifacius Wolfhart, who had been called from Strasbourg, and on 16 May 1531, five weeks after Salminger's recantation, he recanted. It was done in Latin on a weekday, at a time when few persons were present. Because of his "physical exhaustion and the need to earn a living" he requested permission to remain in the city. He would "seek his bread by industrious and faithful instruction of the children of the city in Christian discipline and doctrine as he had done before," and cooperate in the conversion of the Anabaptists. The council consented and appointed him as an assistant at St. Ulrich's Church.

Doubts on the part of the clergy concerning his dogmatic position prevented Dachser from obtaining a regular preaching appointment, though there was no cause for distrust. Dachser avoided the questions for which he had suffered so long, and occupied himself in a field that had thus far received little attention in the Protestant churches, namely, in verse for church singing. In this field he deserves more recognition than he has thus far been given. Even before his imprisonment he had as an Anabaptist preacher composed hymns and must therefore be considered one of the first evangelical poets and hymn writers.

His poems were very early circulated far beyond Anabaptist circles. While he was languishing in the dungeon, some of his songs were published in 1529 in the Augsburg hymnal, Form und Ordnung Gaystlicher Gesang und Psalmen, and are among the best in the collection. The second edition, published in 1532, after his release, was the product of at least his cooperation, if not of his sole editorship. The foreword states that Dachser versified several psalms of David (Psalm 54, Psalm 103, Psalm 116, Psalm 138, Psalm 142, Psalm 143, published in Wackernagel). In the hymnal published in 1537 by Sigmund Salminger (Der gantz Psalter, das ist alle Psalmen Davids, an der zal 150, . . .), there are 42 psalms translated by Dachser into German for church singing; in addition there are several of his songs that had been published in the earlier collection.

In the following year at the request of many friends Dachser published the psalms with notes, titled Der gantz psalter Davids nach Ordnung und anzahl aller Psalmen. Several psalms, he remarks in the foreword, which had been previously rewritten, including two by Martin Luther, he left unchanged except to correct them. The greatest significance of Dachser's hymnal lies in the fact that an appendix contains songs written by him for church holidays and ceremonies, making it the first practical Protestant hymnal. When the Augsburg clergy in 1555 published a Gsangbüchlin (new enlarged edition in 1557), not only all the psalms, but also the appendix of Dachser's book were included.

At this time Dachser was no longer in Augsburg. In August 1552 he and two other preachers (Johann Flinner and Johann Traber) were ordered by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500-1558)|Charles V]] to leave the city, "because they spoke, acted, and practiced all sorts of things that might lead to sedition, revolt, and all mischief"; the fact that one of these preachers "had been an Anabaptist" would be sufficient reason for distrust. Dachser's wife was permitted to remain in Augsburg because of age and ill health; but the Bishop of Arras made the stipulation "that she practice nothing at all with anybody, and hold no meetings in her house." Dachser betook himself to Pfalz-Neuburg; he died in 1567 at the age of nearly eighty-one. His name is in the Index of Venice. According to Schottenloher, Dachser is the author of the anonymous publication, Eine göttliche und gründliche Offenbarung von den wahrhaftigen Wiedertäufern, mit göttlicher Wahrheit anzeigt (1527). This booklet was for a long time ascribed to [[Langenmantel, Eitelhans (d. 1528)|Eitelhans Langenmantel]]. It was printed by the clandestine Augsburg printer (Winkeldrucker) Philipp Ulhart, and was refuted by Urban Rhegius in Notwendige Warnung wider den neuen Taufforden . . . (1527). Copies of this booklet as well as Rhegius' Notwendige Warnung are in the [[Mennonite Historical Library (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Mennonite Historical Library (Goshen, Indiana)]].
= Bibliography =
Briefe und Akten zur Geschichte des 16. Jahrhunderts. III, 316.

Druffel, August von. Die Bairische Politik im Beginne der Reformationszeit 1519-1524 : eine Untersuchung. München: Verl. d. K. Akad., 1886: 643.

Hege, Christian and Christian Neff.''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe; Schneider, 1913-1967. I: 93, 384-86.

Kamp, August. Die Psalmendichtung des Jakob Dachser .... Greifswald: Buchdr. H. Adler, Inh.: E. Panzig & Co., 1931.

Keller, Ludwig. Johann von Staupitz und die Anfānge der Reformation. Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1888.

Keller, Ludwig. "Salminger." Realencyclopedie für Protestantische Theologie and Kirche. 3. ed. Leipzig: J. H. Hinrichs, 1896-1913.

Meyer, C. and Roth, F. Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereins für Schwaben und Neuburg. I (1874), XXVIII (1901).

Prantl, Carl. Geschichte der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität in Ingolstadt, Landshut, München: Zur Festfeier ihres vierhundertjährigen Bestehens im Auftrage des akademischen Senates. München: Christian Kaiser, 1872: I, 149.

Radlkofer, M. "Jakob Dachser u. Sigmund Salminger." Beiträge zur bayerischen Kirchengeschichte (Erlangen, 1900): 6, 1-29.

Reusch, Franz Heinrich. Der Index der verbotenen Bücher. Bonn, Cohen 1883-1885: 231.

Riezler, Sigmund. Geschichte Baierns. Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1878-: IV: 87.

Roth, Friedrich. Augsburgs Reformationsgeschichte. 4 vol. München: T. Ackermann, 1901-1911.

Schottenloher, Karl. Philipp Ulhart: ein Augsburger Winkeldrucker und Helfershelfer der "Schwärmer" und "Wiedertäufer" (1523-1529). München: F.P. Datterer & Sellier, 1921: 72-83.

Wackernagel, Philipp. Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis zu Anfang des XVII. Jahrhunderts: mit Berücksichtigung der deutschen kirchlichen Liederdichtung im weiteren Sinne und der lateinischen von Hilarius bis Georg Fabricius und Wolfgang Ammonius. Leipzig: Druck und Verlag von B.G. Teubner, 1864-1877: III, 701-707.

Winter, Vitus Anton. Geschichte der Schicksale der evangelischen Lehre in und durch Baiern, bewirkt in der ersten Hälfte des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts, oder, Kirchen- und Staatsgeschichte von Baiern von dem Ausbruche der Kirchenreformation bis zu Wilhelms IV. München: J. Lindauer, 1809-1810: I, 98 f.
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 2, pp. 1-2|date=1955|a1_last=Hege|a1_first=Christian|a2_last= |a2_first= }}

Art (1955)

2022-11-28T20:04:41Z

JoeSpringer: /* Bibliography */ Added reference to GRANDMA #476829

__FORCETOC__
__TOC__
=== Introduction ===
The following treatment of the theme is limited basically to the graphic arts, in particular painting, drawing, and etching. For treatment of other forms of art and related topics and for analysis from the 1980s see [[Folk Arts|Folk Arts,]] [[Filmmaking|Filmmaking]], [[Fraktur (Illuminated Drawing)|Fraktur]], [[Literature, Mennonites in -- United States and Canada (English, 1895-1980s)|Literature]], [[Music, North America|Music]]. The article is subdivided as follows: (1) The Mennonite Theme in Art, (2) The Mennonite Attitude Toward Art, (3) The Mennonite Contribution to Art, (4) Mennonite Artists.

<h3>The Mennonite Theme in Art</h3>
<h4>Persons</h4> Seldom have major artists used Mennonite themes in any form of great art, although Mennonite subjects were frequently portrayed by able Dutch painters and etchers. The chief instance is the great Dutch master [[Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1607-1669)|Rembrandt]], who painted, etched, and drew the [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] Mennonite preacher [[Anslo, Cornelis Claesz (1592-1646)|C. C. Anslo]], a [[Waterlanders|Waterlander]] leader. His oil painting of Anslo and his wife hangs in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum in [[Berlin (Germany)|Berlin]]; an original copy of the etching is in the Art Institute of Chicago; both were done in 1641. A copy of Rembrandt's etching of Anslo alone is in the Fogg Museum of Art at Harvard University. Rembrandt also painted or etched various other Waterlander Mennonites. His portrait of Trijn Jans (Catrina Hoogsaet), the wife of preacher Hendrick Jacobsz Rooleeuw, made in 1657, is now in the Lord Penrhyn Collection in England. Several members of the Amsterdam Mennonite Bruyningh family were also painted by Rembrandt, e.g., Nicolaas Bruyningh, whose portrait of 1652 is now in the Gemälde-Galerie at Cassel, [[Germany|Germany]]. Rembrandt's painting of Lieven Willemsz van Coppenol is in the Edward S. Harkness Collection in [[New York (USA)|New York]]. Van Coppenol was a noted Mennonite teacher. H. F. Wijman has shown that the portrait by Rembrandt once assumed to be [[Alenson, Hans Arentsz (d. 1644)|Hans Alenson]] is actually one of the English clergyman John Ellison.

[[File:Rembrandt - The Mennonite Preacher Anslo and his Wife - Google.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|''"Portrait of the Mennonite preacher Cornelius Claesz Anslo and his wife Aeltje Gerritsdr Schouten" by [[Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1607-1669)|Rembrandt]], 1641. 
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. 
Source: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_The_Mennonite_Preacher_Anslo_and_his_Wife_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Wikimedia Commons].'']]
Other outstanding Dutch artists produced portraits of Mennonite preachers, among them being the Mennonite artist [[Mierevelt, Michiel Janszn van (1567-1641)|M. J. van Mierevelt]] (d. 1641), who painted [[Ries, Hans de (1553–1638)|Hans de Ries]] (d. 1638), the great leader of the Waterlanders, and also produced a portrait of the prominent preacher [[Gerritsz, Lubbert (1534-1612)|Lubbert Gerritsz]] (d. 1612), which hangs in the [[Amsterdam, University of (Amsterdam, Netherlands)|University of Amsterdam]]; and the artist [[Jacobsz, Lambert (ca. 1598-1636)|Lambert Jacobsz]] (ca. 1598-1636), himself a Waterlander preacher, who painted his fellow preacher, [[Ring, Yeme Jacobsz de (1574-1627)|Jeme de Ring]]. There is a portrait, formerly ascribed to Rembrandt but actually by his Mennonite pupil [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]] (1615-1660), of Gozen Centen, a regent (member of the board of directors) of the Amsterdam Mennonite old people's home called [[Rijpenhofje (Amsterdam, Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Rijpenhofje]]. Two other Mennonite regents of the Rijpenhofje, Gozewijn Centen (with family) and Job Sieuwerts, were painted by the Dutch artist Christoffel Lubienietzki in the years 1721 and 1713 respectively. Both pictures, though the property of the Amsterdam Mennonite Church, now hang in the Rijksmuseum. The well-known elder, [[Gerrits van Emden, Jan (1561-1617)|Jan Gerrits van Emden]] (d. 1617), was painted by Rombout Uylenburch. The prominent Mennonite preacher of Amsterdam, [[Deknatel, Jeme (Joannes) (1698-1759)|Johannes Deknatel]] (d. 1759), also co-founder of the[[Amsterdam Mennonite Library (Bibliotheek en Archief van de Vereenigde Doopsgezinde Gemeente te Amsterdam)| Amsterdam Mennonite Seminary]], was painted in a miniature, which is now in the possession of the [[Mennonite Historical Library (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Mennonite Historical library]] of [[Goshen College (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Goshen College]]. A bust of [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] and one of [[Hirschy, Noah Calvin (1867-1925)|N. C. Hirschy]] (d. 1925), first president of [[Bluffton University (Bluffton, Ohio, USA)|Bluffton (Ohio) University]], both done by the Mennonite artist [[Klassen, Johann Peter (1868-1947)|J. P. Klassen]], are in the Bluffton University Library.

[[File:Jan-van-Leiden-by-Aldegreve.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Jan Beukelszoon (John of Leyden) 
Source: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Jan_van_Leiden_by_Aldegrever.jpg Wikipedia Commons]'']]
Many wealthy Mennonites had their portraits painted by noted Dutch artists. F. Schmidt Degener has made a thorough study of this in his article "Menniste Portretten" in the magazine Onze Kunst (1914, I, 1 ff.). Hendrik Sorgh (1611-1670) depicted the Jacob Abrahamsz Bierens family in Amsterdam in 1663. Lucas de Clercq and his wife, both Mennonites, had their portraits made by the renowned painter Frans Hals in 1635. Jan van Hoeck, a member of a well-known Amsterdam Mennonite family, had his picture made by Cornelis van der Voort. If one may include the revolutionary [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] here, then it should be noted that [[Beukelszoon, Jan (ca. 1509-1536)|Jan van Leyden]] (d. 1535) was painted several times and that H. Aldegrever made a fine copper-engraving of him in 1536. A good oil painting of him by Herman tom Ring now hangs in the Grandducal Museum at Schwerin, Germany. Of [[David Joris (ca. 1501-1556)|David Joris]] there is a portrait by the Dutch painter Jan van Scorel, now in the Oeffentliche Kunstsammlung at [[Basel (Switzerland)|Basel]], [[Switzerland|Switzerland]]. The greatest Dutch poet, [[Vondel, Joost van den (1587-1679)|Joost van den Vondel]] (1587-1679), who was a Mennonite (for a time deacon) for many years until his [[Conversion|conversion]] to Catholicism, was often pictured, as for instance by [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]] and Philip de Koninck.

Of the various extant portraits of [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], none historical, possibly only three have much artistic value, the one of 1683 by Jakob Burkhardt of Hamburg-Altona, that by Jan Luiken of 1743, and the etching of 1949 by the gifted contemporary Dutch etcher, Arent Hendriks. (See the authoritative article by G. J. Bockenoogen, "De Portretten van Menno Simons," in DB 1916, 33-106, with reproductions of all then extant portraits, also "The portraits of Menno Simons," by S. Smeding in Menn. Life, July 1948, 16-19.) In 1743 a collection of 30 portraits of Dutch Mennonite leaders from Menno Simons on down appeared in book form in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] under the title Versaameling van de afbeeldingen van veele voornaame Mannen en leeraaren, die zoo met het begin der Reformatie als ook in laater tijd het leeraars ampt onder de Doopsgezinde Christenen bedient hebben. Alle op nieuws na de originele, door bekwaame meesters in 't koper gebragt. In 1677 at Middelburg appeared a collection of etchings by C. van Sichem, Het Tooneel der Hooftketteren bestaande in verscheyde afbeeltsels van valsche Propheten, naekt-loopers, etc., which included Menno Simons and David Joris among its pictures of archheretics. The 1608 Historische Beschrijuinge Ende Affbeeldinge der voornaemste Hooft Ketteren contains 15 large engraved portraits by van Sichem, among them [[Hubmaier, Balthasar (1480?-1528)|Balthasar Hubmaier]], [[Adam Pastor (d. 1560/70)|Adam Pastor]], [[Rinck, Melchior (1494-After 1545)|Melchior Rinck]], [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut]], [[Haetzer, Ludwig (1500-1529)|Ludwig Haetzer]], [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman]], and the Münsterite leaders, but not the van Sichem portrait of [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], which was printed as a separate sheet already in 1605 or earlier. Most of these were reproduced in smaller size also in 1608 in Apocalypsis Insignium Aliquot Heresiarcharum. The larger collection was reproduced in several editions with varying content, finally in the 1677 edition.

It was very common in the 16th and particularly in the 18th century to hang portraits of the regents, usually painted as a group, in the board rooms of Dutch [[Orphanages|orphanages]] and old people's homes. Some Mennonite charitable institutions have pictures of their regents, but they are not so common nor of such an early time.

Outside of Holland, Mennonite preachers and wealthy lay members of [[Emden (Niedersachsen, Germany)|Emden]], [[Danzig (Poland)|Danzig]], and Hamburg in North [[Germany|Germany]] were portrayed in paintings, etchings, or miniatures, none outstanding.

<h4>Events, Activities, and Scenes</h4> There are very few pictures of events in Mennonite history. In the old Town Hall of Amsterdam there were once six oil paintings by Doove Barend, of the Wederdoperoproer (assault on the town hall by a group of revolutionary Anabaptists in 1535), but they have disappeared. In a number of old books certain sensational scenes are reproduced from early Anabaptist history, e.g., the story of the Naaktloopers, which was depicted again and again. But these pictures are seldom of artistic value, and generally not authentic but merely fantastic.

[[File:ME1-21-2.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Source: Mennonite Encyclopedia, vol. 1, photo page 21, no. 2 
Martyr scene by Jan Luiken in Martyrs' Mirror'']]
The most extensive use of Mennonite themes was by the noted Dutch etcher [[Luiken, Jan (1649-1712)|Jan Luiken]] (d. 1712), who created the 104 copper engravings used in the second Dutch edition of the[[Martyrs' Mirror]] (1685) later published separately as Theatre des Martyrs (Leyden, 1685?). The original copper plates were extant in [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]] in 1929 and were examined by the writer. They had been used in the Pirmasens (1780) German edition of the Martyrs mirror.

Of great interest are a set of copper engravings from about 1735, representing the ceremonies in Dutch Mennonite churches. In volume VI of The ceremonies and the religious customs of the various nations of the known world (London, 1733-37), also published in French (1736) and in Dutch (1738), the noted French engraver, [[Picart, Bernard (1673–1733)|Bernard Picart]] (1673-1733), and his Dutch associates, who did most of their work in Amsterdam, reproduced two scenes from a Dutch Mennonite [[Communion|communion]] service in the [[Singel Mennonite Church (Amsterdam, Holland)|Amsterdam Singel Church]], two engravings of a Mennonite [[Baptism, Age at|baptism]], and two engravings of an Amsterdam Mennonite man in costume, all of 1736 or thereabouts. F. ter Meer painted ([[Krefeld (Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany)|Krefeld]], 1845) Die Gehetzten, a scene showing 16th century Krefeld Mennonites worshiping in a barn.

There is a fine engraving of the old Witmarsum church of about 1820, and many good engravings, mostly from the 18th century, of the churches of [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]], [[Utrecht (Utrecht, Netherlands)|Utrecht]], [[Leiden (Zuid-Holland, Netherlands)|Leiden]], [[Zaandam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Zaandam]], and others. A symbolic engraving by D. Kerkhoff (1792) bears the title Monument van de Doopsgezinden.
[[File:Aruele Robert001.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Preacher visiting a Anabaptist family in the Bernese Jura by Robert Aurèle.Source: S. G. Geiser. Die Taufgesinnten Gemeinden. 2. Auflage. ([Brügg, Poststr. 3, im Selbstverlag], (Vertrieb: Christian Schmutz, Courgenay.) 1971. [front matter p.13]'']]
The copper engraving of 1782, The Mennonite proposal for marriage, by the Danzig artist Daniel Chodowiecky (d. 1801), not a Mennonite, portrays a custom of the Mennonites of that city. The Swiss artist, Aurèle Robert (1805-1871), painted a picture of a Swiss Mennonite family of near Tavannes, Bernese [[Jura Mountains|Jura]], about 1850, which hangs in the Lausanne (Switzerland) Museum (Musée des Beaux-Arts), entitled L'Anabaptiste ou ferme Bernois. The Swiss artist Joseph Reinhard (1749-1829) produced a colored etching of a Mennonite couple at the Johannestor in Basel, entitled Costumes des Anabaptistes Suisses, which was published in his noted work on Swiss costumes ca. 1824. An 18th century gravure by E. Maaskamp depicts a Mennonite couple on the Dutch island of [[Kampen (Overijssel, Netherlands)|Kampen]]. A similar one by Lewicki depicts an Alsatian couple of ca. 1815.

In the [[United States of America|United States]] since the mid-20th century [[Old Order Amish|Amish]] themes have been used. The artists Kiehl and Christian Newswanger of near [[Lancaster (Pennsylvania, USA)| Lancaster]], [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], produced a number of interesting Pennsylvania Amish portraits, in painting, etching, and drawing, which have been widely exhibited in recent years and are now in the permanent collection of the Library of Congress at Washington, DC. Benjamin Eicholtz's Mennonite woman (early 19th century) is in the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The Mennonite artist of [[Goshen (Indiana, USA)|Goshen]], Indiana, A. L. Sprunger, has made linoleum cuts of Amish figures. [[Schenk, Oliver Wendell "Tom" (1903-1996)|Oliver Wendell Schenk]] (1903-1996), himself a Mennonite student in [[Goshen (Indiana, USA)|Goshen]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], at the time, produced in 1933 a pen and ink sketch of the noted Mennonite schoolmaster of the Skippack (Pennsylvania), [[Dock, Christopher (d. 1771)|Christopher Dock]] (d. 1771), at prayer in his schoolroom, as well as a pencil sketch of the [[Doylestown (Pennsylvania, USA)|Doylestown]], Pennsylvania, Mennonite meetinghouse and graveyard. WoIdemar Neufeld (1909-2002), a former Mennonite, painted (ca. 1930) the [[Steinmann Mennonite Church (Baden, Ontario, Canada)|Steinmann Mennonite meetinghouse]] near [[Baden (Ontario, Canada)|Baden]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]]. Jakob Sudermann painted the [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza, Russia, Mennonite church]] 1932.

If one should include the [[Münster Anabaptists|Münsterites]] of 1534-1535 with the Anabaptists, then reference would have to be made to numerous works portraying episodes, personalities, or scenes from this tragic affair. One of the most notable among these is the series of 30 black and white drawings (one etching and 29 in woodcut style) by the noted modern German artist, Joseph Sattler (1867-1931), published in Berlin in 1895 under the title Die Wiedertäufer.

Max Geisberg has made a special study of the [[Münster Anabaptists|Münster Anabaptists]] in art in his Die münsterischen Wiedertäufer und Aldegrever ... (Strasbourg, 1907).

<h3>The Mennonite Attitude Toward Art</h3> <h4>In Principle</h4> The Anabaptist-Mennonites, as more closely related to the Zwinglian-Calvinist phase of the Reformation than to the Lutheran, shared with the former their objection to the use of art in religious worship or in religious activity in any form. With their emphasis upon simplicity, sincerity, and humility, art seemed to them artificial and pretentious, often dangerous and wasteful. Whether their negative attitude was based upon the second commandment, "Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image," as asserted by [[Neff, Christian (1863-1946)|Neff]] (ML 1, 221), is not clear. Later this was in part the case, and there is evidence that in [[West Prussia|West Prussia]], as well as in [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], and among the later descendants of both groups, this attitude prevailed. A striking illustration is the case of the Danzig Mennonite portrait-painter, [[Seemann, Enoch, Sr. (1661-?)|Enoch Seemann, Sr]]. (b. 1661 in [[Elbing (Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland)|Elbing]]), who was placed under the [[Ban|ban]] in 1697 by the Danzig [[Flemish Mennonites|Flemish]] Mennonite elder [[Hansen, Georg (d. 1703) |Georg Hansen]] specifically on the ground of violating the second commandment by painting portraits, and was reinstated only after promising to limit himself to landscapes and decorations. (The story is told in Seemann's booklet Offenbahrung und Bestraffung des gergen Hanszens Thorheit, Stoltzenberg, 1697.) The Danzig Flemish congregation thoroughly supported their elder in this action. Even then, and for some time, at least until after 1850, Mennonites of this area were not permitted to be professional artists, only amateur practice being considered tolerable.

Possibly the rural character of these groups and their cultural isolation may account for some of their negativism toward art. In any case it has persisted through the 19th century among all Mennonite groups except those in Holland, the North German cities, and the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]]. It still is rigidly adhered to by the [[Old Order Amish| Old Order Amish]] of the USA and some conservative groups of Russian background in [[Manitoba (Canada)|Manitoba]], [[Mexico|Mexico]], and in [[Paraguay|Paraguay]] who forbid the hanging of any works of art in their homes, and also the taking of photographs. In the 20th century this attitude gradually disappeared in most Mennonite groups. However, in such a long prevailing negative atmosphere it is not surprising that there have been so few Mennonite artists and that those who wanted to be artists were either expelled or forced to leave.

It is worthy of note that no real art developed among Mennonites except in those groups where there was a close connection with the national culture and in urban areas such as Holland and North Germany. The art of illumination of manuscripts, which was handed down in the Pennsylvania German communities and among the Mennonites of Prussia and [[Russia|Russia]], found a few Mennonite practitioners (e.g., the teacher Christopher Dock of Skippack (d. 1771), preacher John Gross of Deep Run (1814-1903)) but this is a very minor art form. In any case, the Mennonites are known to have practiced only the graphic arts; in the plastic arts they are markedly absent except for some silversmiths in Holland, occasional pottery (e.g., the modern [[Makkum (Friesland, Netherlands)|Makkum]] pottery in Holland), and folk art in such forms as samplers and bed quilts, and some wood carving. In [[North America|North America]], as the Mennonites as a whole began to move out of their cultural isolation and out of a purely rural environment, particularly through the influence of the public elementary and high schools as well as the leadership of their church colleges, a positive attitude toward art gradually replaced the former negative one (but not in the more conservative groups). Departments of art were established in the church colleges, and Mennonites became art teachers and artists in their own right, such as J. P. Klassen of [[Bluffton University (Bluffton, Ohio, USA)|Bluffton College]] and A. L. Sprunger of Goshen College and Goshen High School. The [[Mennonite Publishing House (Scottdale, Pennsylvania, USA)|Mennonite Publishing House]] at Scottdale began to employ its own Mennonite artists for the art work in its publications, as did also the [[Mennonite Press (Newton, Kansas, USA) |Mennonite Press]] at [[North Newton (Kansas, USA)|North Newton]], Kansas.

There are those, however, who doubt whether much great art can be produced in a group which has a strict standard of Christian morals and a strong sense of separation from the "world," and a relative isolation from the main stream of the national culture, since this might interfere with the freedom required for creative art. There are also those who hold on the other side that the autonomy of art is a danger to a truly profound religious experience and that one or the other must be sacrificed.

The Dutch Mennonites are a noteworthy exception to the general Mennonite pattern in their attitude toward art. First among the Waterlander Mennonites toward the end of the 16th century and then during the 17th century among most of the other groups except the most conservative, all opposition to art faded away and was replaced by a genuine appreciation for and love of art in various forms. This is evidenced not only by the commissions given for portraits, and by the appearance of many Mennonite artists, including both painters and etchers of the first rank, but also by the collections of paintings and other art objects in the homes of the wealthier Mennonites who were frequently friends and even patrons of artists. There have been several outstanding Dutch Mennonite art critics and historians, among them the noted [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Carel van Mander]] (1548-1606), whose Schilderboek was the first Dutch history of art.

Something of the love of art among the Dutch Mennonites is also evidenced by the fact that some congregations have valuable and very fine communion cups. Generally they were, like the tankards (jugs) and bread-plates, mostly of pewter, although the congregation of [[Zwolle (Overijssel, Netherlands)|Zwolle]] had silver cups already in the year 1661, the congregation of [[Koog (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Koog]]-Zaandijk also such from the 17th century, [[Leiden (Zuid-Holland, Netherlands)|Leiden]] from 1701, Stavoren from 1745, [[Rotterdam (Zuid-Holland, Netherlands)|Rotterdam]] from 1774, [[Kampen (Overijssel, Netherlands)|Kampen]], [[Giethoorn (Overijssel, Netherlands)|Giethoorn]], and [[Joure (Friesland, Netherlands)|Joure]] from the same time. Those of Kampen, Joure, and Rotterdam are of a high artistic value.

<h4>Art in Mennonite Homes, especially in Holland; Mennonite Art Collectors</h4> During the so-called [[Frisian Mennonites|Frisian]] and [[Flemish Mennonites|Flemish]] quarrels the former accused the latter of giving too much attention and money to the adornment of their houses, and in the year 1659 a meeting of [[Groningen Old Flemish Mennonites|Groninger Old Flemish]] leaders at [[Loppersum (Groningen, Netherlands)|Loppersum]] forbade the use of stained glass windows in the houses and the making of portraits (Blaupot t. C., Friesland, 307-8: see also [[Nonconformity|Nonconformity]]) and even [[Rues, M. Simeon Friedrich (1713-1748)|S. F. Rues]], who visited the Dutch Mennonites in 1742, stated the fact (Rues, Tegenwoordige Staet, Amsterdam, 1745, 27) that the so-called [[Danzig Old Flemish Mennonites|Danzig Old Flemish]] Mennonites excommunicated members who hung oil paintings and other decorations on the walls of their homes, and specially "when they got to the foolishness of having themselves pictured." But the fact that [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Carel van Mander]] could be a member even of the very austere Old Flemish congregation of [[Haarlem (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Haarlem]] and also be a painter, proves indisputably that Mennonites as such were no opponents of art, generally speaking. We find pictures and other kinds of art in Mennonite homes, particularly of those Mennonites in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] and other cities of the [[Netherlands|Netherlands]] who had grown wealthy during the early 16th century. The picture which H. Sorgh made in 1663 of the Bierens home shows pictures on the wall. Surely we must consider this Bierens interior at Amsterdam as an example of Mennonite life at this time. Later on, and especially in the 18th century, Delft pottery and the valuable chinaware, both cups and large plates, decorated the walls of many Mennonite homes. And this was not only the fact in the more luxurious residences of the province of Holland, but also in the country, as is clear from a report by the Reformed pastor [[Elgersma, Franciscus (1625-1712)|Elgersma]] (of the year 1685) that the Mennonite preacher [[Floris, Foecke (ca. 1650-ca. 1700)|Foecke Floris]] caused the people to take away from their walls, cups, plates, pictures, etc. (Hylkema, Reformateurs II, Haarlem, 1902, 6.)

Though we cannot determine accurately how many art collectors there have been among the Dutch Mennonites, we know that there were some even in the 17th century. From 1625 on [[Theunisz, Jan (ca. 1569-1637?)|Jan Theunisz]] in Amsterdam was the owner of a kind of restaurant, where the men of the world (among whom were many Mennonites!) used to meet and to view his great collection of art objects and curiosities. The Mennonite Hendrik van Uylenburgh was an art dealer and collector about the same time. Jan Pietersz Bruyningh, who was painted with his wife by Rembrandt in 1636, had a small collection of oil-paintings by Lastman, Flinck, de Coninck, and two or three pictures by Rembrandt. There is reason to suppose that there were at this time many Mennonite art collectors. Of Mennonite art collectors of the 18th century we should mention among many others, [[Teyler van der Hulst, Pieter (1702-1778)|Pieter Teyler van der Hulst]] (1702-1778) at Haarlem, who gathered a large collection of valuable books, oil-paintings, drawings, coins and medals, etc. In Rotterdam the brothers Pieter and Jan Bisschop, of whom the first mentioned died in 1758 and the latter in 1771, had a fine collection of precious pictures, drawings of old Dutch and foreign masters, antique vases, splendid miniatures, enamels, gold and silver objects, Japan porcelain of the finest quality, lacquered ware from China, rare shells and other curiosities, which were all packed carefully in large cases. Strangers who visited Rotterdam sought the opportunity of looking at the Kunstcabinet van de oude heer Bisschop. In 1778 the stadtholder of the [[Netherlands|Netherlands]], William of Orange, and his spouse, admired the Bisschop collection. Mennonite collectors and collections of the 19th century and today need not be further mentioned.

According to [[Kühler, Wilhelmus Johannes (1874-1946)|Kühler]] (II, 1, p. 59), Hendrik van Uylenburgh (1584-1660), the leader of a famous school of art and a well-known art dealer, was a Mennonite, a cousin of Rembrandt's first wife Saskia and a close friend of his. His brother Rombout later lived in Danzig and painted the Mennonite preacher [[Gerrits van Emden, Jan (1561-1617)|Jan Gerrits of Emden]]. His son Gerrit was also an art dealer, though not with the best reputation. -- ''Nanne van der Zijpp''

<h3>The Particular Mennonite Contribution to Art</h3> The relationship between Anabaptism-Mennonitism and the Dutch painting of the 16th and 17th centuries (in the broad sense, drawing and etching) will be considered from three aspects: (a) whether there is any fundamental mutual influence or conditioning between Mennonitism in Holland and painting; (b) whether there is in the case of Dutch painters who were Mennonites evidence that their faith found expression in their work; (c) in which of the Dutch painters does one find Mennonites or Mennonite characteristics portrayed.

Does there exist any fundamental influence and limitation between Mennonitism and Dutch painting? One thinks first and usually of [[Calvinism and Mennonitism (Netherlands)|Calvinism]] when one speaks of Dutch Protestantism, but this exclusiveness is by no means correct. The Reformation had numerous adherents in the [[Netherlands|Netherlands]] for 40 years before Calvinism from the south in 1566 won its dominant position. This pre-Calvinist period was to a large extent influenced by [[Anabaptism|Anabaptism]]; indeed the Reformation and Anabaptism were for a time nearly identical in die Netherlands. (J. G. de Hoop-Scheffer, Geschiedenis der Kerkhervorming in Nederland, 1873, 3.) But the point pertinent to our discussion is this: All that Protestantism has contributed to the cultural life of the [[Netherlands|Netherlands]] especially with respect to art can be traced in principle and in its essence to this Anabaptistically determined Reformation. In this realm Calvinism could contribute nothing new; it merely took over. Also in the ensuing period it was true that Calvinism was the sole authoritative represen tative of Protestantism, however domineering it may have acted and however domineering it may indeed have been upon the state. Even in the later periods an independent Mennonite share in the cultural fruits of Dutch Protestantism can be assumed -- at any rate so great a scholar as Johan Huizinga does so (Die höllandische Kultur des 17. Jahrhunderts, Jena, 1933).

It is therefore proper, whenever the Protestant element in Dutch painting in its Golden Age is to be considered, to see in it an important aspect of Mennonitism. To be sure, we must guard our selves against the idea that Dutch painting is as such Protestant, especially in contrast to a Catholic art of Flanders, which remained under the dominion of Spain. In the first place there are areas where such a contrast does not exist and many connections can be traced, even between Rubens and Rembrandt. In the second place, the contrast is based not only on creed, but also on political and social conditions, the contrast between the bourgeois North and the courtly South. In the third place, we find already in the old Dutch "old Flemish" art of the 15th century, and still more in the [[Flemish Mennonites|Flemish]] art of the peasant Breughel, tendencies (such as the preference for genre painting, still life and landscape) which became important in later Dutch painting. Finally, many of the motifs of Dutch painting (the peasant pictures of Adriaan van Ostade, the genre pictures of Jan Steen, etc.) hardly fit into any category of Protestantism, especially the Dutch type of Protestantism.

[[File:Isaac Blessing Jacob - Govert Flinck.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Isaac Blesses Jacob by [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]]. 
Source: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isaac_Blessing_Jacob_-_Govert_Flinck.jpg Wikipedia Commons]'']]
We cannot avoid first of all viewing the effect of Protestantism on Dutch painting as a negative force, limiting and impoverishing it, for Protestant ism is responsible first of all for what is lacking in Dutch painting as the nature and motif of its creation. Dutch Protestantism was always extremely hostile to furnishing churches with paintings, and that is as true of [[Calvinism and Mennonitism (Netherlands)|Calvinism]] as of Mennonitism. Thus the church drops out of the picture as an art center. Certain types of painting found in the Middle Ages and in the Catholic countries, such as the crucifixion (with exceptions like Rembrandt), the Virgin, and the saints, no longer are wanted. But there is also a lack of allegorical and mytho logical subjects from antiquity, such as is found in abundance in Italian and Flemish art, chiefly be cause Protestantism, Calvinistic as well as Mennonite, looked upon the depiction of these acts with suspicion. It is certainly an effect of Protestantism that causes the first great Dutch art historian, [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Carel van Mander]], himself a Mennonite, to lament, "It is our present want and misfortune [about 1600], that so few figurative subjects can be painted in our Netherlands, whereby an opportunity would be given to our young people and to painters to achieve distinction in the presentation of allegory or in the treatment of the nude. For what there is to paint is mostly pictures according to nature" (i.e., por traits).

On the other hand, though it must be granted that, as Carel van Mander laments, the Protestant influence led to an impoverishment in comparison with the earlier and contemporary work of other countries, nevertheless closer consideration shows that it also had a positive and fruitful effect. With its attitude toward ecclesiastical art, indeed to art in general, Protestantism preserved Dutch painting from becoming a mere appendage to Italian and Flemish art. It made Dutch art independent; renunciation became a gift. It is therefore largely due to Protestantism that portraiture became a fine art among the Dutch, that in Rembrandt it was developed to the point where the man and the man alone stands before his God, strives with God, is reflected in God. But Protestantism, and especially Dutch Protestantism, is a religion of domesticity; even the churches of that time look more like residences than churches. Dutch landscape painting likewise betrays Protestant influence. Its realism presents a sharp contrast to the symbolism of the Middle Ages and the theatrical lightness of contemporary Italian as well as some of the Flemish landscape painting; for the Protestant the world as such is the scene of a reality that is to be taken seriously, with real tasks and duties! When Dutch landscape painting becomes unreal, it becomes dreamy and romantic as with Ruisdael; here too Protestant individualism must not be overlooked!

In short, an examination of Dutch painting reveals many a feature that bears a Protestant stamp. And within the framework of the Mennonite share in the character of Dutch Protestantism, the question concerning a significant influence of Mennonitism upon Dutch art must, upon this evidence, be answered in the affirmative. But is there evidence in the cases of all the many Dutch Mennonite artists, especially of the 17th century, that their confession has found expression in their creations? The answer is only in part affirmative. These Mennonite painters do not fall out of the general framework of Dutch art. Perhaps a direct influence of their religious attitude may be seen most easily in the Biblical subjects painted by [[David Joris (ca. 1501-1556)|David Joris]], [[Jacobsz, Lambert (ca. 1598-1636)|Lambert Jacobsz]], [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]], and [[Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1607-1669)|Rembrandt]]. The work of [[Luiken, Jan (1649-1712)|Jan Luiken]] is in sharp dependence upon his religious inclinations -- cf. his illustrations for the Martyrs mirror of [[Braght, Tieleman Jansz van (1625-1664)|Tielemann van Braght]] (Dutch edition of 1685 and German edition of 1780). There is a conspicuous absence of genre painting among all these Mennonite painters. Would it be correct to attribute this lack to their Mennonitism, which was characterized by soundness and good manners? At any rate, it seems that the influence of their faith must be sought in their manner of life rather than in their manner of painting. Houbraken, who usually dwells with pleasure and in detail on the scandals in the lives of the Dutch painters, frequently stresses in the case of the Mennonites their morality, good manners, and piety, as in the case of David Joris, van Mierevelt, Flinck, van der Heyden, and Luiken. With a few exceptions, however, such as van [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Mander]] and Jacobsz, the artists were not active in religious matters. -- ''Dirk Kossen''

<h3>Mennonite Artists</h3> <h4>Anabaptists</h4> The only artist among the early Anabaptists was David Joris (1501-56), an early Dutch convert baptized and ordained by [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips]] in 1535 or 1536 who soon turned radical mystic, left the brotherhood, also was bitterly opposed by Menno Simons, and lived under a pseudonym in Basel as a wealthy merchant the last 12 years of his life. He was a capable glass painter and a sketcher of Biblical scenes; one of his sketches is in the Vienna Albertina Museum. Some of his preliminary drawings for the glass paintings are preserved in England. Other Anabaptist glass-painters (glas-schrijver, glasgraveur) are mentioned among the Dutch martyrs, such as [[Jan Woutersz van Cuyck (d. 1572)|Jan Woutersz van Cuyck]] who is called schildersartist en glasgraveur, and a certain Rommeken.

<h4>Netherlands</h4> A considerable number of the best Dutch artists have been Mennonites, particularly in the golden age of Dutch art, the 17th century, a few of them Mennonite preachers. It has sometimes been asserted that the greatest of all Dutch painters, [[Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1607-1669)|Rembrandt van Rijn]] (1607-1669), was a Mennonite. [[Kühler, Wilhelmus Johannes (1874-1946)|Kühler]] calls him a Mennonite (Geschiedenis II, 1, p. 58), as does Hendrik van Loon in his biography of Rembrandt. However, the best and most recent scholarship hesitates to claim this with finality, holding as to actual [[Church Membership|church membership]] only that "it is probable that Rembrandt at the end of the 1650's either belonged to or stood close to a freer circle of [[Waterlanders|Waterlander Mennonites]] which stood under [[Collegiants|Collegiant]] domination" (H. M. Rotermund, Rembrandt und die religiösen Laienbewegungen in den Niederlanden im 17. Jahrhundert, 1952). In any case Rembrandt's religion was in its deepest essence Mennonite, formed by Mennonite influences, and his essential spirit and expression were Mennonite in character. This is asserted not only by Rotermund, but also by other scholars, most recently by L. Venturi in Painting and painters (N.Y., 1948), and Jacob Rosenberg in Rembrandt (Cambridge, 1948). The great Rembrandt scholar, F. Schmidt-Degener, says that Rembrandt was "the obvious product of Mennonite environment."

[[File:Isaac%20Newton%20by%20Enoch%20Seeman%201725.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''"Sir Isaac Newton" by [[Seemann, Enoch, Jr. (1694-1744)|Enoch Seemann]], 1725'']]
The first Dutch Mennonite painter, coming before the 17th century, was [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Carel van Mander]] (1548-1606), of the stricter Old Flemish group. Among the leading Dutch painters of the golden age were [[Mierevelt, Michiel Janszn van (1567-1641)|Michiel J. van Mierevelt]] (1567-1641; [[Jacobsz, Lambert (ca. 1598-1636)|Lambert Jacobsz]] (ca. 1598-1636); [[Backer, Jacob Adriaensz (1608-1651)|Jacob Adriaensz Backer]] (1608-1651); Rembrandt's close friend and pupil [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]] (1614-1660); Salomon [[Ruisdael, van, family|van Ruysdael]] (1605-1670), and his famous nephew Jacob van Ruisdael (1628-1682); [[Hoogstraten, Samuel van (1627-1678)|Samuel van Hoogstraten]] (1627-1678); [[Tempel, Abraham van den (1622-1672)|Abraham van den Tempel]] (1622-1672), the son of Lambert Jacobsz; and [[Heyden, Jan van der (1637-1712)|Jan van der Heyden]] (1637-1712). There was also the noted copperplate-engraver [[Luiken, Jan (1649-1712)|Jan Luiken]] (1649-1712) who was a Mennonite for only a few years, 1673-1675. Dutch Mennonite artists of later times include: [[Mauve, Anton (1838-1888)|Anton Mauve (1838-1888)]], Hendrik Willem Mesdag (1831-1915), and Sientje Mesdag van Houten (1834-1909). Except for Carel van a Mander and Lambert Jacobsz, the Dutch Mennonite artists were not prominent in church life.

[[File:Balthasar Denner 003.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Porträt einer alten Frau by [[Denner, Balthasar (1685-1749)|Balthasar Denner]] 
Source: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Balthasar_Denner_003.jpg Wikipedia Commons]'']]
<h4>Germany</h4> In [[Germany|Germany]] the two Hamburg painters, Jakob called [[Denner, Balthasar (1685-1749)|Balthasar Denner]] (1685-1749) and [[Smissen, Dominicus van der (1704-1760)|Dominicus van der Smissen]] (1704-1760), contributed a great deal to art; paintings by the former are found in all of the more important European art galleries. [[Seemann, Enoch, Jr. (1694-1744)|Enoch Seemann, Jr.]] (b. 1694 in Elbing, d. 1744 in London), a talented painter and engraver, was a member of the [[Danzig Mennonite Church (Gdansk, Poland)|Danzig Mennonite Church]]. In the 19th century Berend Goos (1815-1885) won recognition for his paintings of animals and landscapes. The same is true of the sculptor Emil Heinrich Wurtz, who immigrated to America and lost his life in his prime in the wreck of the S.S. Burgoyne on 4 July 1898 at the age of 42 ([[Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender (Periodical)|Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender]] 1905, 45 ff.). There are also the [[Krefeld (Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany)|Krefeld]] painters, Moritz von Beckerath (1836-96), painter of historical scenes, and Willy von Beckerath (b. 1868 ), painter and art dealer, and the Danzigers Heinrich Zimmermann (1804-1845), Richard Loewens (1856-1885), and Hans Mekelburger (1884-1915) who fell on the field of battle in [[Poland|Poland]] in 1915 at the age of 30 at the beginning of a promising career; the Königsbergers Johann Wientz (years 1781-1849) and Franz Theodor Zimmermann (1807-1877?). South German Mennonites have produced one good artist, [[Wohlgemuth, Daniel (1876-1967)|Daniel Wohlgemuth]] (1875-1967) of the [[Weierhof (Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany)|Weierhof]] ([[Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany)|Palatinate]]) community living in 1950 at Gundersheim near Worms. Of lesser rank is Fritz Mosimann of Mulhouse, [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] (since 1914 French territory), member of the Pfastatt congregation, who painted local Alsatian landscapes and scenes. The outstanding modern artist of the West Prussian Mennonites, however, was Marie Birckholtz-Bestvater (b. 1888 at Preussisch-Konigsdorf, near Danzig, West Prussia) studied in [[Berlin (Germany)|Berlin]] and [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]] 1908-1913, and lived in the Danzig-Zoppot area, where she had her studio until 1945. After living in Berlin 1945-1947, she immigrated to [[Buenos Aires (Argentina)|Buenos Aires]] in 1947, where she was employed in the ceramics firm "Tadeco." Mrs. Birckholtz's mediums were oil and watercolor, her themes landscapes (earlier largely West Prussian) and figure sketches. She had numerous one-woman shows. Most of her works were destroyed or lost in [[West Prussia|West Prussia]] during the war, a few taken along to [[Argentina|Argentina]]. Mention should also be made of [[Beckerath, Wolf von (1896-1944)|Wolf von Beckerath]] (1896-1944) of Krefeld, and the sculptor Heinrich Mekelburger.

<h4>Russia</h4> [[Janzen, Johannes Heinrich (1868-1917)|Johannes Heinrich Janzen]] (1868-1917), teacher and preacher of Gnadenfeld in the [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna]], South [[Russia|Russia]], was the first able artist among the Russian Mennonites. Although he had no formal training, his drawings and oil paintings were of good quality. His favorite theme was the Molotschna landscape. Six of his oil paintings have been brought to America, the best being: "Peace on the Molotschna" (A Russian Mennonite farmstead) and "The Thunderstorm," both in the possession of the family of his late brother, [[Janzen, Jacob H. (1878-1950)|Elder Jacob H. Janzen]] (1878-1950) of Waterloo, Ontario. One of Janzen's finest products was Das Märchen vom Weihnachtsmann, his own version of the Christmas story, richly illustrated in colors with his own drawings. He also did the illustrations for his brother Jacob H. Janzen's (Zenian), Denn meine Augen haben Deinen Heiland gesehen (Hamburg, v.d. Höhe, ca. 1924).

Hans Janzen (1893-1967), son of the above Johannes Heinrich, was the outstanding Mennonite artist in Russia. His favorite theme was also the Molotschna landscape, although he painted portraits as well. He was educated in [[Moscow (Russia)|Moscow]], and then taught mathematics, physics, and art at the [[Ohrloff Mennonitische Zentralschule (Ohrloff, Molotschna Mennonite Settlement, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Mennonite Zentralschule]] at Orloff in the [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna colony]]. He remained in the Soviet Union, reportedly dying in the [[Caucasus|Caucasus]] Region on September 24 or 25, 1967. Twelve of his paintings were brought to America. Hans Janzen copied in black and white his father's illustrations for a mimeographed edition of Das Märchen vom Weihnachtsmann, which was published by his uncle, Elder [[Janzen, Jacob H. (1878-1950)|Jacob H. Janzen]], in Canada.

Perhaps a still finer artist of Russian Mennonite background is [[Neufeld, Woldemar Heinrich (1909-2002)|Woldemar Neufeld]], stepson of Elder [[Janzen, Jacob H. (1878-1950)|Jacob Janzen]] (Waterloo), b. 1909 at Waldheim, Molotschna, who was a student of Hans Janzen in the Orloff school and came to [[Canada|Canada]] in 1924. He is therefore properly considered an American artist. After study at Waterloo College, Neufeld attended the Cleveland School of Art (1935-39) and then set up the Neufeld Studios in New York City and New Preston, Connecticut (1949). He held one-man shows in [[Cleveland (Ohio, USA)|Cleveland]], [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]], New York, [[Toronto (Ontario, Canada)|Toronto]], and elsewhere. He specialized in color prints and in watercolor, and painted numerous [[Waterloo County (Ontario, Canada)|Waterloo County]] landscapes. The Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, the Cleveland Museum of Public Art, and many private collectors own his color prints. (See American artist, XVI, Jan. 1952, "Presenting Woldemar Neufeld," 48 ff.

John P. Klassen (b. 1888), born in [[Kronsgarten (Chortitza Mennonite Settlement, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, Ukraine)|Kronsgarten]], [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza]], received professional art training at the Universities of Berlin and [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]], and taught art in the [[Chortitza Zentralschule (Chortitza, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza Zentralschule]] in [[Russia|Russia]] before coming to the [[United States of America|United States]] in 1924. He became professor of art at [[Bluffton University (Bluffton, Ohio, USA)|Bluffton College]] in 1924, his own specialty being small sculpture, including bas-relief and plaques. Among his works are a bust of Menno Simons and one of N. C. Hirschy (d. 1916), first president of Bluffton College.

J. Sudermann, born ca. 1900 in the [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza settlement]], educated in Russia and Germany, was an outstanding artist, poet, and teacher among the Mennonites of the [[Ukraine|Ukraine]], last heard of in a concentration camp in Siberia. His favorite themes in oil and watercolor were the landscapes and buildings in the [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza]] area, among them the [[Chortitza Mennonite Church (Chortitza, Chortitza Mennonite Settlement, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza Mennonite Church]] painted in 1932. A number of his works were brought by relatives to Canada 1947 ff. Johann Funk, formerly a teacher in [[Arkadak (Saratov Oblast, Russia)|Arkadak]], Barstow, since 1930 in Paraguay, deserves passing mention.

Alexander Harder, a son of preacher Bernhard Harder, and brother of novelist [[Harder, Johannes "Hans" (1903-1987)|Hans Harder]], born and reared in the [[Alexandertal Mennonite Settlement (Samara Oblast, Russia)|Alexandertal settlement near Samara]] on the Volga River, Russia, but living in Germany after 1924, at Hanau near Frankfurt, painted many Russian scenes and landscapes. He is known also for his oil painting of Menno Simons, done for the 1936 Mennonite World Conference.

<h4>United States and Canada</h4> The chief North American Mennonite artists of native stock are Arthur L. Sprunger (b. 1897) of Goshen, Indiana, of Swiss background, and [[Schenk, Oliver Wendell "Tom" (1903-1996)|Oliver Wendell Schenk]] (1903-1996) of an old Virginia-Ohio Mennonite family. Of immigrant Russian Mennonite stock are Hans Bartsch (b. 1884) born at [[Tashkent (Toshkent Province, Uzbekistan)|Tashkent]], [[Turkestan|Turkestan]], immigrated to [[Newton (Kansas, USA)|Newton]], [[Kansas (USA)|Kansas]], 1893-4, now resident in New York City; J. P. Klassen (b. 1888) born in Kronsgarten, Chortitza, Russia, immigrated to [[Bluffton (Ohio, USA)|Bluffton, Ohio]], 1924 and since then resident there; Woldemar Neufeld (b. 1909) born at Waldheim, [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna]], immigrated to Waterloo, Ontario, in 1924, later resident in New Preston, Conn.; and D. G. Rempel, born in Russia, immigrated to Bluffton, Ohio, in 1922, student of J. P. Klassen at Bluffton, then in Akron, Ohio, as a designer and manufacturer of toys, known for his fine small sculpture "The Fallen Horseman," now in the [[Bluffton University (Bluffton, Ohio, USA)|Bluffton College Library]], relating an incident in the [[Ukraine|Ukraine]] in 1919. Elder Johannes Janzen, formerly a teacher in the [[Turkestan|Turkestan]] (Russian) Mennonite settlement, resident in the [[Stoltz Plateau (Santa Catarina, Brazil)|Stoltz Plateau]] colony in Santa Catharina, Brazil, from 1930 until recently, now located in the new settlement at [[Witmarsum Colony (Paraná State, Brazil)|Witmarsum]] in [[Paraná (Brazil)|Paraná]], painted numerous scenes in the [[Krauel Colony (Alto Krauel District, Santa Catarina, Brazil)|Krauel Colony]] (Santa Catharina) in oil. -- ''Harold S. Bender''
= Bibliography =
Boekenoogen, G. J. "De Portretten van Menno Simons." Doopsgezinde Bijdragen (1916): 33-106. With images.

Cate, Steven Blaupot ten. Geschiedenis der Doopsgezinden in Friesland. Leeuwarden: W. Eekhoff, 1839: 307-308.

Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender (1905): 45 ff.

Geisberg, Max. Die münsterischen Wiedertäufer und Aldegrever: eine ikonographische und numismatische Studie. Studien zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte, Heft 76. Baden-Baden: V. Koerner, 1977.

Gomersall, R. "A Father and Son Paint" (on the Newswangers and their Amish etchings). American-German Review 17 (1950): 10-13.

GRANDMA (The Genealogical Registry and Database of Mennonite Ancestry) Database, 4.19 ed. Fresno, CA: [http://calmenno.org/index.htm California Mennonite Historical Society], 2021: #476829 Johann J. "Hans" Janzen.

Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. ''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 221; v. II, 241-243.

Houbraken, Arnold. De Groote Schouburgh der Nederlantsche Konstschilders en Schilderessen, 3 vols. Amsterdam, 1718 and 1719.

Huizinga, Johan. Holländische kultur des siebzehnten jahrhunderts : ihre sozialen grundlagen und nationale. Jena : E. Diederichs, 1933.

Hylkema, C. B. Reformateurs: Beschiedkundige studiën over de godsdienstige bewegingen uit de nadagen onzer Gouden Eeuw, 2 vols. in 1. Haarlem: H.D. Tjeenk Willink en Zoon, 1900: v.II, 6

Klassen, J. P. "Mennonite Ideals in Art." Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference on Mennonite Cultural Problems. North Newton, 1945: 135-145.

Kühler, Wilhelmus Johannes. Geschiedenis van de Doopsgezinden in Nederland II. 1600-1735 Eerste Helft. Haarlem: H.D. Tjeenk Willink & Zoon n.v., 1940: 58-59.

Mander, Carel van. Het schilderboek: het leven van de doorluchtige Nederlandse en Hoogduitse schilders. Amsterdam: Wereldbibliotheek, 1995.

Mennonite life containing the following articles: S. Smeding. "The Portraits of Menno Simons." (July 1948): 16-19; K. Kauenhoven. "Mennonite Artists -- Danzig and Koenigsberg." (July 1949): 17-23; C. Krahn, "Rembrandt. the Bible, and the Mennonites." (1952): 3-6; H. M. Rotermund. "Rembrandt and the Mennonites." (1952): 7-10; A. Sudermann. "Traum und Wirklichkeit" (on J. Sudermann)." (1953): 17-23.

Mitteilungen des Sippenverbandes der Danziger Menn.-Familien Epp-Kauenhoven-Zimmerman, containing the following articles by Kurt Kauenhoven: "Wie trugen sich unsere mennonitische Vorfahren." VI, 1940: 62-4 and 94-5; "Die gottesdienstlichen Gebräuche unserer mennonitischen Vorfahren (Aus den Bildern von Bernard Picart);" "Die Abendmahlsfeier." VI: 98-101; "Die Taufe." VI: 129-32; "Die erste gedruckte Erwähnung der Danziger Kauenhoven 1697." VI: 111-16, referring to Enoch Seemann, Sr., with bibliographical references.

"Presenting Woldemar Neufeld." American Artist 16 (January 1952): 48 ff.

Rosenberg, Jakob. Rembrandt: Life & Work. [London]: Phaidon Publishers, 1964.

Rotermund, H. -M. Rembrandt und die religiösen Laienbewegungen in den Niederlanden seiner Zeit. Bussum: Nederlands kunsthistorisch Jaarboek, 1953.

Rues, Simeon Friderich. Tegenwoordige staet der Doopsgezinden of Mennoniten, in de Vereenigde Nederlanden: waeragter komt een berigt van de Rynsburgers of Collegianten. T' Amsterdam: By F. Houttuyn, 1745: 27.

Scheffer, Jacob Gijsbert de Hoop. Geschiedenis der kerkhervorming in Nederland van haar ontstaan tot 1531. Amsterdam: G.L. Funke, 1873: 3.

Schmidt Degener, F. "Menniste Portretten." Onze Kunst I (1914): 1 ff.

Smeding, S. "The Portraits of Menno Simons." Mennonite Life (July 1948): 16-19.

Venturi, Lionello. Painting and painters; how to look at a picture, from Giotto to Chagall. New York, C. Scribner’s sons, [1945]

Two American Mennonite periodicals have given attention to reproducing the work of Mennonite artists, Die Mennonitische Warte (Steinbach, Man., 1935-38) and Mennonite life (North Newton, Kans., 1946 The former published a few watercolors and pen-and-ink sketches by the Russian-American artists J. P. Klassen ([[Bluffton (Ohio, USA)|Bluffton]]), John Funk (Saskatoon), and [[Dyck, Arnold (Abram Bernhard) (1889-1970)|Arnold Dyck]] (Steinbach-Winnipeg). Dyck, who studied art in [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]], though more active as a writer than an artist, has illustrated some of his own writings with human-interest figure sketches. Mennonite life has covered a broad scope in its reproductions. Articles or reproductions have dealt with the following: A. L. Sprunger, J. P. Klassen, Aurèle Robert, J. Sudermann, Alexander Harder, E. Seemann, H. Zimmermann, F. T. Zimmermann, J. Wientz, Rembrandt, A. Hendriks and the earlier Menno Simons portraits, D. Chodowiecky, D. Wohlgemuth, Heinrich Mekelburger, M. Birckholtz-Bestvater.
{{GAMEO_footer-3|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 165-172|date=1955|a1_last=Zijpp|a1_first=Nanne van der|a2_last=Kossen|a2_first=Dirk|a3_last=Bender|a3_first=Harold S.}}

Art (1955)

2022-11-28T19:51:49Z

JoeSpringer: At beginning of section "Russia" 1955 ME mistakenly named Heinrich Johann Janzen (1844-1904) instead of his son Johannes Heinrich Janzen (1868-1917). Original text correctly named relationships of Johannes Heinrich Janzen's uncle and son. Corrected name/dates of individual and changed hyperlink to article for Johannes Heinrich. In information on Johannes Heinrich's son Hans, added birth/death years, as well as reported location and date of death (from GRANDMA #476829 and link to Caucasus

__FORCETOC__
__TOC__
=== Introduction ===
The following treatment of the theme is limited basically to the graphic arts, in particular painting, drawing, and etching. For treatment of other forms of art and related topics and for analysis from the 1980s see [[Folk Arts|Folk Arts,]] [[Filmmaking|Filmmaking]], [[Fraktur (Illuminated Drawing)|Fraktur]], [[Literature, Mennonites in -- United States and Canada (English, 1895-1980s)|Literature]], [[Music, North America|Music]]. The article is subdivided as follows: (1) The Mennonite Theme in Art, (2) The Mennonite Attitude Toward Art, (3) The Mennonite Contribution to Art, (4) Mennonite Artists.

<h3>The Mennonite Theme in Art</h3>
<h4>Persons</h4> Seldom have major artists used Mennonite themes in any form of great art, although Mennonite subjects were frequently portrayed by able Dutch painters and etchers. The chief instance is the great Dutch master [[Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1607-1669)|Rembrandt]], who painted, etched, and drew the [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] Mennonite preacher [[Anslo, Cornelis Claesz (1592-1646)|C. C. Anslo]], a [[Waterlanders|Waterlander]] leader. His oil painting of Anslo and his wife hangs in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum in [[Berlin (Germany)|Berlin]]; an original copy of the etching is in the Art Institute of Chicago; both were done in 1641. A copy of Rembrandt's etching of Anslo alone is in the Fogg Museum of Art at Harvard University. Rembrandt also painted or etched various other Waterlander Mennonites. His portrait of Trijn Jans (Catrina Hoogsaet), the wife of preacher Hendrick Jacobsz Rooleeuw, made in 1657, is now in the Lord Penrhyn Collection in England. Several members of the Amsterdam Mennonite Bruyningh family were also painted by Rembrandt, e.g., Nicolaas Bruyningh, whose portrait of 1652 is now in the Gemälde-Galerie at Cassel, [[Germany|Germany]]. Rembrandt's painting of Lieven Willemsz van Coppenol is in the Edward S. Harkness Collection in [[New York (USA)|New York]]. Van Coppenol was a noted Mennonite teacher. H. F. Wijman has shown that the portrait by Rembrandt once assumed to be [[Alenson, Hans Arentsz (d. 1644)|Hans Alenson]] is actually one of the English clergyman John Ellison.

[[File:Rembrandt - The Mennonite Preacher Anslo and his Wife - Google.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|''"Portrait of the Mennonite preacher Cornelius Claesz Anslo and his wife Aeltje Gerritsdr Schouten" by [[Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1607-1669)|Rembrandt]], 1641. 
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. 
Source: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_The_Mennonite_Preacher_Anslo_and_his_Wife_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Wikimedia Commons].'']]
Other outstanding Dutch artists produced portraits of Mennonite preachers, among them being the Mennonite artist [[Mierevelt, Michiel Janszn van (1567-1641)|M. J. van Mierevelt]] (d. 1641), who painted [[Ries, Hans de (1553–1638)|Hans de Ries]] (d. 1638), the great leader of the Waterlanders, and also produced a portrait of the prominent preacher [[Gerritsz, Lubbert (1534-1612)|Lubbert Gerritsz]] (d. 1612), which hangs in the [[Amsterdam, University of (Amsterdam, Netherlands)|University of Amsterdam]]; and the artist [[Jacobsz, Lambert (ca. 1598-1636)|Lambert Jacobsz]] (ca. 1598-1636), himself a Waterlander preacher, who painted his fellow preacher, [[Ring, Yeme Jacobsz de (1574-1627)|Jeme de Ring]]. There is a portrait, formerly ascribed to Rembrandt but actually by his Mennonite pupil [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]] (1615-1660), of Gozen Centen, a regent (member of the board of directors) of the Amsterdam Mennonite old people's home called [[Rijpenhofje (Amsterdam, Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Rijpenhofje]]. Two other Mennonite regents of the Rijpenhofje, Gozewijn Centen (with family) and Job Sieuwerts, were painted by the Dutch artist Christoffel Lubienietzki in the years 1721 and 1713 respectively. Both pictures, though the property of the Amsterdam Mennonite Church, now hang in the Rijksmuseum. The well-known elder, [[Gerrits van Emden, Jan (1561-1617)|Jan Gerrits van Emden]] (d. 1617), was painted by Rombout Uylenburch. The prominent Mennonite preacher of Amsterdam, [[Deknatel, Jeme (Joannes) (1698-1759)|Johannes Deknatel]] (d. 1759), also co-founder of the[[Amsterdam Mennonite Library (Bibliotheek en Archief van de Vereenigde Doopsgezinde Gemeente te Amsterdam)| Amsterdam Mennonite Seminary]], was painted in a miniature, which is now in the possession of the [[Mennonite Historical Library (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Mennonite Historical library]] of [[Goshen College (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Goshen College]]. A bust of [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]] and one of [[Hirschy, Noah Calvin (1867-1925)|N. C. Hirschy]] (d. 1925), first president of [[Bluffton University (Bluffton, Ohio, USA)|Bluffton (Ohio) University]], both done by the Mennonite artist [[Klassen, Johann Peter (1868-1947)|J. P. Klassen]], are in the Bluffton University Library.

[[File:Jan-van-Leiden-by-Aldegreve.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Jan Beukelszoon (John of Leyden) 
Source: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Jan_van_Leiden_by_Aldegrever.jpg Wikipedia Commons]'']]
Many wealthy Mennonites had their portraits painted by noted Dutch artists. F. Schmidt Degener has made a thorough study of this in his article "Menniste Portretten" in the magazine Onze Kunst (1914, I, 1 ff.). Hendrik Sorgh (1611-1670) depicted the Jacob Abrahamsz Bierens family in Amsterdam in 1663. Lucas de Clercq and his wife, both Mennonites, had their portraits made by the renowned painter Frans Hals in 1635. Jan van Hoeck, a member of a well-known Amsterdam Mennonite family, had his picture made by Cornelis van der Voort. If one may include the revolutionary [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] here, then it should be noted that [[Beukelszoon, Jan (ca. 1509-1536)|Jan van Leyden]] (d. 1535) was painted several times and that H. Aldegrever made a fine copper-engraving of him in 1536. A good oil painting of him by Herman tom Ring now hangs in the Grandducal Museum at Schwerin, Germany. Of [[David Joris (ca. 1501-1556)|David Joris]] there is a portrait by the Dutch painter Jan van Scorel, now in the Oeffentliche Kunstsammlung at [[Basel (Switzerland)|Basel]], [[Switzerland|Switzerland]]. The greatest Dutch poet, [[Vondel, Joost van den (1587-1679)|Joost van den Vondel]] (1587-1679), who was a Mennonite (for a time deacon) for many years until his [[Conversion|conversion]] to Catholicism, was often pictured, as for instance by [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]] and Philip de Koninck.

Of the various extant portraits of [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], none historical, possibly only three have much artistic value, the one of 1683 by Jakob Burkhardt of Hamburg-Altona, that by Jan Luiken of 1743, and the etching of 1949 by the gifted contemporary Dutch etcher, Arent Hendriks. (See the authoritative article by G. J. Bockenoogen, "De Portretten van Menno Simons," in DB 1916, 33-106, with reproductions of all then extant portraits, also "The portraits of Menno Simons," by S. Smeding in Menn. Life, July 1948, 16-19.) In 1743 a collection of 30 portraits of Dutch Mennonite leaders from Menno Simons on down appeared in book form in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] under the title Versaameling van de afbeeldingen van veele voornaame Mannen en leeraaren, die zoo met het begin der Reformatie als ook in laater tijd het leeraars ampt onder de Doopsgezinde Christenen bedient hebben. Alle op nieuws na de originele, door bekwaame meesters in 't koper gebragt. In 1677 at Middelburg appeared a collection of etchings by C. van Sichem, Het Tooneel der Hooftketteren bestaande in verscheyde afbeeltsels van valsche Propheten, naekt-loopers, etc., which included Menno Simons and David Joris among its pictures of archheretics. The 1608 Historische Beschrijuinge Ende Affbeeldinge der voornaemste Hooft Ketteren contains 15 large engraved portraits by van Sichem, among them [[Hubmaier, Balthasar (1480?-1528)|Balthasar Hubmaier]], [[Adam Pastor (d. 1560/70)|Adam Pastor]], [[Rinck, Melchior (1494-After 1545)|Melchior Rinck]], [[Hut, Hans (d. 1527)|Hans Hut]], [[Haetzer, Ludwig (1500-1529)|Ludwig Haetzer]], [[Hoffman, Melchior (ca. 1495-1544?) |Melchior Hoffman]], and the Münsterite leaders, but not the van Sichem portrait of [[Menno Simons (1496-1561)|Menno Simons]], which was printed as a separate sheet already in 1605 or earlier. Most of these were reproduced in smaller size also in 1608 in Apocalypsis Insignium Aliquot Heresiarcharum. The larger collection was reproduced in several editions with varying content, finally in the 1677 edition.

It was very common in the 16th and particularly in the 18th century to hang portraits of the regents, usually painted as a group, in the board rooms of Dutch [[Orphanages|orphanages]] and old people's homes. Some Mennonite charitable institutions have pictures of their regents, but they are not so common nor of such an early time.

Outside of Holland, Mennonite preachers and wealthy lay members of [[Emden (Niedersachsen, Germany)|Emden]], [[Danzig (Poland)|Danzig]], and Hamburg in North [[Germany|Germany]] were portrayed in paintings, etchings, or miniatures, none outstanding.

<h4>Events, Activities, and Scenes</h4> There are very few pictures of events in Mennonite history. In the old Town Hall of Amsterdam there were once six oil paintings by Doove Barend, of the Wederdoperoproer (assault on the town hall by a group of revolutionary Anabaptists in 1535), but they have disappeared. In a number of old books certain sensational scenes are reproduced from early Anabaptist history, e.g., the story of the Naaktloopers, which was depicted again and again. But these pictures are seldom of artistic value, and generally not authentic but merely fantastic.

[[File:ME1-21-2.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Source: Mennonite Encyclopedia, vol. 1, photo page 21, no. 2 
Martyr scene by Jan Luiken in Martyrs' Mirror'']]
The most extensive use of Mennonite themes was by the noted Dutch etcher [[Luiken, Jan (1649-1712)|Jan Luiken]] (d. 1712), who created the 104 copper engravings used in the second Dutch edition of the[[Martyrs' Mirror]] (1685) later published separately as Theatre des Martyrs (Leyden, 1685?). The original copper plates were extant in [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]] in 1929 and were examined by the writer. They had been used in the Pirmasens (1780) German edition of the Martyrs mirror.

Of great interest are a set of copper engravings from about 1735, representing the ceremonies in Dutch Mennonite churches. In volume VI of The ceremonies and the religious customs of the various nations of the known world (London, 1733-37), also published in French (1736) and in Dutch (1738), the noted French engraver, [[Picart, Bernard (1673–1733)|Bernard Picart]] (1673-1733), and his Dutch associates, who did most of their work in Amsterdam, reproduced two scenes from a Dutch Mennonite [[Communion|communion]] service in the [[Singel Mennonite Church (Amsterdam, Holland)|Amsterdam Singel Church]], two engravings of a Mennonite [[Baptism, Age at|baptism]], and two engravings of an Amsterdam Mennonite man in costume, all of 1736 or thereabouts. F. ter Meer painted ([[Krefeld (Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany)|Krefeld]], 1845) Die Gehetzten, a scene showing 16th century Krefeld Mennonites worshiping in a barn.

There is a fine engraving of the old Witmarsum church of about 1820, and many good engravings, mostly from the 18th century, of the churches of [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]], [[Utrecht (Utrecht, Netherlands)|Utrecht]], [[Leiden (Zuid-Holland, Netherlands)|Leiden]], [[Zaandam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Zaandam]], and others. A symbolic engraving by D. Kerkhoff (1792) bears the title Monument van de Doopsgezinden.
[[File:Aruele Robert001.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Preacher visiting a Anabaptist family in the Bernese Jura by Robert Aurèle.Source: S. G. Geiser. Die Taufgesinnten Gemeinden. 2. Auflage. ([Brügg, Poststr. 3, im Selbstverlag], (Vertrieb: Christian Schmutz, Courgenay.) 1971. [front matter p.13]'']]
The copper engraving of 1782, The Mennonite proposal for marriage, by the Danzig artist Daniel Chodowiecky (d. 1801), not a Mennonite, portrays a custom of the Mennonites of that city. The Swiss artist, Aurèle Robert (1805-1871), painted a picture of a Swiss Mennonite family of near Tavannes, Bernese [[Jura Mountains|Jura]], about 1850, which hangs in the Lausanne (Switzerland) Museum (Musée des Beaux-Arts), entitled L'Anabaptiste ou ferme Bernois. The Swiss artist Joseph Reinhard (1749-1829) produced a colored etching of a Mennonite couple at the Johannestor in Basel, entitled Costumes des Anabaptistes Suisses, which was published in his noted work on Swiss costumes ca. 1824. An 18th century gravure by E. Maaskamp depicts a Mennonite couple on the Dutch island of [[Kampen (Overijssel, Netherlands)|Kampen]]. A similar one by Lewicki depicts an Alsatian couple of ca. 1815.

In the [[United States of America|United States]] since the mid-20th century [[Old Order Amish|Amish]] themes have been used. The artists Kiehl and Christian Newswanger of near [[Lancaster (Pennsylvania, USA)| Lancaster]], [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], produced a number of interesting Pennsylvania Amish portraits, in painting, etching, and drawing, which have been widely exhibited in recent years and are now in the permanent collection of the Library of Congress at Washington, DC. Benjamin Eicholtz's Mennonite woman (early 19th century) is in the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The Mennonite artist of [[Goshen (Indiana, USA)|Goshen]], Indiana, A. L. Sprunger, has made linoleum cuts of Amish figures. [[Schenk, Oliver Wendell "Tom" (1903-1996)|Oliver Wendell Schenk]] (1903-1996), himself a Mennonite student in [[Goshen (Indiana, USA)|Goshen]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], at the time, produced in 1933 a pen and ink sketch of the noted Mennonite schoolmaster of the Skippack (Pennsylvania), [[Dock, Christopher (d. 1771)|Christopher Dock]] (d. 1771), at prayer in his schoolroom, as well as a pencil sketch of the [[Doylestown (Pennsylvania, USA)|Doylestown]], Pennsylvania, Mennonite meetinghouse and graveyard. WoIdemar Neufeld (1909-2002), a former Mennonite, painted (ca. 1930) the [[Steinmann Mennonite Church (Baden, Ontario, Canada)|Steinmann Mennonite meetinghouse]] near [[Baden (Ontario, Canada)|Baden]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]]. Jakob Sudermann painted the [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza, Russia, Mennonite church]] 1932.

If one should include the [[Münster Anabaptists|Münsterites]] of 1534-1535 with the Anabaptists, then reference would have to be made to numerous works portraying episodes, personalities, or scenes from this tragic affair. One of the most notable among these is the series of 30 black and white drawings (one etching and 29 in woodcut style) by the noted modern German artist, Joseph Sattler (1867-1931), published in Berlin in 1895 under the title Die Wiedertäufer.

Max Geisberg has made a special study of the [[Münster Anabaptists|Münster Anabaptists]] in art in his Die münsterischen Wiedertäufer und Aldegrever ... (Strasbourg, 1907).

<h3>The Mennonite Attitude Toward Art</h3> <h4>In Principle</h4> The Anabaptist-Mennonites, as more closely related to the Zwinglian-Calvinist phase of the Reformation than to the Lutheran, shared with the former their objection to the use of art in religious worship or in religious activity in any form. With their emphasis upon simplicity, sincerity, and humility, art seemed to them artificial and pretentious, often dangerous and wasteful. Whether their negative attitude was based upon the second commandment, "Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image," as asserted by [[Neff, Christian (1863-1946)|Neff]] (ML 1, 221), is not clear. Later this was in part the case, and there is evidence that in [[West Prussia|West Prussia]], as well as in [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], and among the later descendants of both groups, this attitude prevailed. A striking illustration is the case of the Danzig Mennonite portrait-painter, [[Seemann, Enoch, Sr. (1661-?)|Enoch Seemann, Sr]]. (b. 1661 in [[Elbing (Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland)|Elbing]]), who was placed under the [[Ban|ban]] in 1697 by the Danzig [[Flemish Mennonites|Flemish]] Mennonite elder [[Hansen, Georg (d. 1703) |Georg Hansen]] specifically on the ground of violating the second commandment by painting portraits, and was reinstated only after promising to limit himself to landscapes and decorations. (The story is told in Seemann's booklet Offenbahrung und Bestraffung des gergen Hanszens Thorheit, Stoltzenberg, 1697.) The Danzig Flemish congregation thoroughly supported their elder in this action. Even then, and for some time, at least until after 1850, Mennonites of this area were not permitted to be professional artists, only amateur practice being considered tolerable.

Possibly the rural character of these groups and their cultural isolation may account for some of their negativism toward art. In any case it has persisted through the 19th century among all Mennonite groups except those in Holland, the North German cities, and the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]]. It still is rigidly adhered to by the [[Old Order Amish| Old Order Amish]] of the USA and some conservative groups of Russian background in [[Manitoba (Canada)|Manitoba]], [[Mexico|Mexico]], and in [[Paraguay|Paraguay]] who forbid the hanging of any works of art in their homes, and also the taking of photographs. In the 20th century this attitude gradually disappeared in most Mennonite groups. However, in such a long prevailing negative atmosphere it is not surprising that there have been so few Mennonite artists and that those who wanted to be artists were either expelled or forced to leave.

It is worthy of note that no real art developed among Mennonites except in those groups where there was a close connection with the national culture and in urban areas such as Holland and North Germany. The art of illumination of manuscripts, which was handed down in the Pennsylvania German communities and among the Mennonites of Prussia and [[Russia|Russia]], found a few Mennonite practitioners (e.g., the teacher Christopher Dock of Skippack (d. 1771), preacher John Gross of Deep Run (1814-1903)) but this is a very minor art form. In any case, the Mennonites are known to have practiced only the graphic arts; in the plastic arts they are markedly absent except for some silversmiths in Holland, occasional pottery (e.g., the modern [[Makkum (Friesland, Netherlands)|Makkum]] pottery in Holland), and folk art in such forms as samplers and bed quilts, and some wood carving. In [[North America|North America]], as the Mennonites as a whole began to move out of their cultural isolation and out of a purely rural environment, particularly through the influence of the public elementary and high schools as well as the leadership of their church colleges, a positive attitude toward art gradually replaced the former negative one (but not in the more conservative groups). Departments of art were established in the church colleges, and Mennonites became art teachers and artists in their own right, such as J. P. Klassen of [[Bluffton University (Bluffton, Ohio, USA)|Bluffton College]] and A. L. Sprunger of Goshen College and Goshen High School. The [[Mennonite Publishing House (Scottdale, Pennsylvania, USA)|Mennonite Publishing House]] at Scottdale began to employ its own Mennonite artists for the art work in its publications, as did also the [[Mennonite Press (Newton, Kansas, USA) |Mennonite Press]] at [[North Newton (Kansas, USA)|North Newton]], Kansas.

There are those, however, who doubt whether much great art can be produced in a group which has a strict standard of Christian morals and a strong sense of separation from the "world," and a relative isolation from the main stream of the national culture, since this might interfere with the freedom required for creative art. There are also those who hold on the other side that the autonomy of art is a danger to a truly profound religious experience and that one or the other must be sacrificed.

The Dutch Mennonites are a noteworthy exception to the general Mennonite pattern in their attitude toward art. First among the Waterlander Mennonites toward the end of the 16th century and then during the 17th century among most of the other groups except the most conservative, all opposition to art faded away and was replaced by a genuine appreciation for and love of art in various forms. This is evidenced not only by the commissions given for portraits, and by the appearance of many Mennonite artists, including both painters and etchers of the first rank, but also by the collections of paintings and other art objects in the homes of the wealthier Mennonites who were frequently friends and even patrons of artists. There have been several outstanding Dutch Mennonite art critics and historians, among them the noted [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Carel van Mander]] (1548-1606), whose Schilderboek was the first Dutch history of art.

Something of the love of art among the Dutch Mennonites is also evidenced by the fact that some congregations have valuable and very fine communion cups. Generally they were, like the tankards (jugs) and bread-plates, mostly of pewter, although the congregation of [[Zwolle (Overijssel, Netherlands)|Zwolle]] had silver cups already in the year 1661, the congregation of [[Koog (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Koog]]-Zaandijk also such from the 17th century, [[Leiden (Zuid-Holland, Netherlands)|Leiden]] from 1701, Stavoren from 1745, [[Rotterdam (Zuid-Holland, Netherlands)|Rotterdam]] from 1774, [[Kampen (Overijssel, Netherlands)|Kampen]], [[Giethoorn (Overijssel, Netherlands)|Giethoorn]], and [[Joure (Friesland, Netherlands)|Joure]] from the same time. Those of Kampen, Joure, and Rotterdam are of a high artistic value.

<h4>Art in Mennonite Homes, especially in Holland; Mennonite Art Collectors</h4> During the so-called [[Frisian Mennonites|Frisian]] and [[Flemish Mennonites|Flemish]] quarrels the former accused the latter of giving too much attention and money to the adornment of their houses, and in the year 1659 a meeting of [[Groningen Old Flemish Mennonites|Groninger Old Flemish]] leaders at [[Loppersum (Groningen, Netherlands)|Loppersum]] forbade the use of stained glass windows in the houses and the making of portraits (Blaupot t. C., Friesland, 307-8: see also [[Nonconformity|Nonconformity]]) and even [[Rues, M. Simeon Friedrich (1713-1748)|S. F. Rues]], who visited the Dutch Mennonites in 1742, stated the fact (Rues, Tegenwoordige Staet, Amsterdam, 1745, 27) that the so-called [[Danzig Old Flemish Mennonites|Danzig Old Flemish]] Mennonites excommunicated members who hung oil paintings and other decorations on the walls of their homes, and specially "when they got to the foolishness of having themselves pictured." But the fact that [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Carel van Mander]] could be a member even of the very austere Old Flemish congregation of [[Haarlem (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Haarlem]] and also be a painter, proves indisputably that Mennonites as such were no opponents of art, generally speaking. We find pictures and other kinds of art in Mennonite homes, particularly of those Mennonites in [[Amsterdam (Noord-Holland, Netherlands)|Amsterdam]] and other cities of the [[Netherlands|Netherlands]] who had grown wealthy during the early 16th century. The picture which H. Sorgh made in 1663 of the Bierens home shows pictures on the wall. Surely we must consider this Bierens interior at Amsterdam as an example of Mennonite life at this time. Later on, and especially in the 18th century, Delft pottery and the valuable chinaware, both cups and large plates, decorated the walls of many Mennonite homes. And this was not only the fact in the more luxurious residences of the province of Holland, but also in the country, as is clear from a report by the Reformed pastor [[Elgersma, Franciscus (1625-1712)|Elgersma]] (of the year 1685) that the Mennonite preacher [[Floris, Foecke (ca. 1650-ca. 1700)|Foecke Floris]] caused the people to take away from their walls, cups, plates, pictures, etc. (Hylkema, Reformateurs II, Haarlem, 1902, 6.)

Though we cannot determine accurately how many art collectors there have been among the Dutch Mennonites, we know that there were some even in the 17th century. From 1625 on [[Theunisz, Jan (ca. 1569-1637?)|Jan Theunisz]] in Amsterdam was the owner of a kind of restaurant, where the men of the world (among whom were many Mennonites!) used to meet and to view his great collection of art objects and curiosities. The Mennonite Hendrik van Uylenburgh was an art dealer and collector about the same time. Jan Pietersz Bruyningh, who was painted with his wife by Rembrandt in 1636, had a small collection of oil-paintings by Lastman, Flinck, de Coninck, and two or three pictures by Rembrandt. There is reason to suppose that there were at this time many Mennonite art collectors. Of Mennonite art collectors of the 18th century we should mention among many others, [[Teyler van der Hulst, Pieter (1702-1778)|Pieter Teyler van der Hulst]] (1702-1778) at Haarlem, who gathered a large collection of valuable books, oil-paintings, drawings, coins and medals, etc. In Rotterdam the brothers Pieter and Jan Bisschop, of whom the first mentioned died in 1758 and the latter in 1771, had a fine collection of precious pictures, drawings of old Dutch and foreign masters, antique vases, splendid miniatures, enamels, gold and silver objects, Japan porcelain of the finest quality, lacquered ware from China, rare shells and other curiosities, which were all packed carefully in large cases. Strangers who visited Rotterdam sought the opportunity of looking at the Kunstcabinet van de oude heer Bisschop. In 1778 the stadtholder of the [[Netherlands|Netherlands]], William of Orange, and his spouse, admired the Bisschop collection. Mennonite collectors and collections of the 19th century and today need not be further mentioned.

According to [[Kühler, Wilhelmus Johannes (1874-1946)|Kühler]] (II, 1, p. 59), Hendrik van Uylenburgh (1584-1660), the leader of a famous school of art and a well-known art dealer, was a Mennonite, a cousin of Rembrandt's first wife Saskia and a close friend of his. His brother Rombout later lived in Danzig and painted the Mennonite preacher [[Gerrits van Emden, Jan (1561-1617)|Jan Gerrits of Emden]]. His son Gerrit was also an art dealer, though not with the best reputation. -- ''Nanne van der Zijpp''

<h3>The Particular Mennonite Contribution to Art</h3> The relationship between Anabaptism-Mennonitism and the Dutch painting of the 16th and 17th centuries (in the broad sense, drawing and etching) will be considered from three aspects: (a) whether there is any fundamental mutual influence or conditioning between Mennonitism in Holland and painting; (b) whether there is in the case of Dutch painters who were Mennonites evidence that their faith found expression in their work; (c) in which of the Dutch painters does one find Mennonites or Mennonite characteristics portrayed.

Does there exist any fundamental influence and limitation between Mennonitism and Dutch painting? One thinks first and usually of [[Calvinism and Mennonitism (Netherlands)|Calvinism]] when one speaks of Dutch Protestantism, but this exclusiveness is by no means correct. The Reformation had numerous adherents in the [[Netherlands|Netherlands]] for 40 years before Calvinism from the south in 1566 won its dominant position. This pre-Calvinist period was to a large extent influenced by [[Anabaptism|Anabaptism]]; indeed the Reformation and Anabaptism were for a time nearly identical in die Netherlands. (J. G. de Hoop-Scheffer, Geschiedenis der Kerkhervorming in Nederland, 1873, 3.) But the point pertinent to our discussion is this: All that Protestantism has contributed to the cultural life of the [[Netherlands|Netherlands]] especially with respect to art can be traced in principle and in its essence to this Anabaptistically determined Reformation. In this realm Calvinism could contribute nothing new; it merely took over. Also in the ensuing period it was true that Calvinism was the sole authoritative represen tative of Protestantism, however domineering it may have acted and however domineering it may indeed have been upon the state. Even in the later periods an independent Mennonite share in the cultural fruits of Dutch Protestantism can be assumed -- at any rate so great a scholar as Johan Huizinga does so (Die höllandische Kultur des 17. Jahrhunderts, Jena, 1933).

It is therefore proper, whenever the Protestant element in Dutch painting in its Golden Age is to be considered, to see in it an important aspect of Mennonitism. To be sure, we must guard our selves against the idea that Dutch painting is as such Protestant, especially in contrast to a Catholic art of Flanders, which remained under the dominion of Spain. In the first place there are areas where such a contrast does not exist and many connections can be traced, even between Rubens and Rembrandt. In the second place, the contrast is based not only on creed, but also on political and social conditions, the contrast between the bourgeois North and the courtly South. In the third place, we find already in the old Dutch "old Flemish" art of the 15th century, and still more in the [[Flemish Mennonites|Flemish]] art of the peasant Breughel, tendencies (such as the preference for genre painting, still life and landscape) which became important in later Dutch painting. Finally, many of the motifs of Dutch painting (the peasant pictures of Adriaan van Ostade, the genre pictures of Jan Steen, etc.) hardly fit into any category of Protestantism, especially the Dutch type of Protestantism.

[[File:Isaac Blessing Jacob - Govert Flinck.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Isaac Blesses Jacob by [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]]. 
Source: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Isaac_Blessing_Jacob_-_Govert_Flinck.jpg Wikipedia Commons]'']]
We cannot avoid first of all viewing the effect of Protestantism on Dutch painting as a negative force, limiting and impoverishing it, for Protestant ism is responsible first of all for what is lacking in Dutch painting as the nature and motif of its creation. Dutch Protestantism was always extremely hostile to furnishing churches with paintings, and that is as true of [[Calvinism and Mennonitism (Netherlands)|Calvinism]] as of Mennonitism. Thus the church drops out of the picture as an art center. Certain types of painting found in the Middle Ages and in the Catholic countries, such as the crucifixion (with exceptions like Rembrandt), the Virgin, and the saints, no longer are wanted. But there is also a lack of allegorical and mytho logical subjects from antiquity, such as is found in abundance in Italian and Flemish art, chiefly be cause Protestantism, Calvinistic as well as Mennonite, looked upon the depiction of these acts with suspicion. It is certainly an effect of Protestantism that causes the first great Dutch art historian, [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Carel van Mander]], himself a Mennonite, to lament, "It is our present want and misfortune [about 1600], that so few figurative subjects can be painted in our Netherlands, whereby an opportunity would be given to our young people and to painters to achieve distinction in the presentation of allegory or in the treatment of the nude. For what there is to paint is mostly pictures according to nature" (i.e., por traits).

On the other hand, though it must be granted that, as Carel van Mander laments, the Protestant influence led to an impoverishment in comparison with the earlier and contemporary work of other countries, nevertheless closer consideration shows that it also had a positive and fruitful effect. With its attitude toward ecclesiastical art, indeed to art in general, Protestantism preserved Dutch painting from becoming a mere appendage to Italian and Flemish art. It made Dutch art independent; renunciation became a gift. It is therefore largely due to Protestantism that portraiture became a fine art among the Dutch, that in Rembrandt it was developed to the point where the man and the man alone stands before his God, strives with God, is reflected in God. But Protestantism, and especially Dutch Protestantism, is a religion of domesticity; even the churches of that time look more like residences than churches. Dutch landscape painting likewise betrays Protestant influence. Its realism presents a sharp contrast to the symbolism of the Middle Ages and the theatrical lightness of contemporary Italian as well as some of the Flemish landscape painting; for the Protestant the world as such is the scene of a reality that is to be taken seriously, with real tasks and duties! When Dutch landscape painting becomes unreal, it becomes dreamy and romantic as with Ruisdael; here too Protestant individualism must not be overlooked!

In short, an examination of Dutch painting reveals many a feature that bears a Protestant stamp. And within the framework of the Mennonite share in the character of Dutch Protestantism, the question concerning a significant influence of Mennonitism upon Dutch art must, upon this evidence, be answered in the affirmative. But is there evidence in the cases of all the many Dutch Mennonite artists, especially of the 17th century, that their confession has found expression in their creations? The answer is only in part affirmative. These Mennonite painters do not fall out of the general framework of Dutch art. Perhaps a direct influence of their religious attitude may be seen most easily in the Biblical subjects painted by [[David Joris (ca. 1501-1556)|David Joris]], [[Jacobsz, Lambert (ca. 1598-1636)|Lambert Jacobsz]], [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]], and [[Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1607-1669)|Rembrandt]]. The work of [[Luiken, Jan (1649-1712)|Jan Luiken]] is in sharp dependence upon his religious inclinations -- cf. his illustrations for the Martyrs mirror of [[Braght, Tieleman Jansz van (1625-1664)|Tielemann van Braght]] (Dutch edition of 1685 and German edition of 1780). There is a conspicuous absence of genre painting among all these Mennonite painters. Would it be correct to attribute this lack to their Mennonitism, which was characterized by soundness and good manners? At any rate, it seems that the influence of their faith must be sought in their manner of life rather than in their manner of painting. Houbraken, who usually dwells with pleasure and in detail on the scandals in the lives of the Dutch painters, frequently stresses in the case of the Mennonites their morality, good manners, and piety, as in the case of David Joris, van Mierevelt, Flinck, van der Heyden, and Luiken. With a few exceptions, however, such as van [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Mander]] and Jacobsz, the artists were not active in religious matters. -- ''Dirk Kossen''

<h3>Mennonite Artists</h3> <h4>Anabaptists</h4> The only artist among the early Anabaptists was David Joris (1501-56), an early Dutch convert baptized and ordained by [[Obbe Philips (ca. 1500-1568)|Obbe Philips]] in 1535 or 1536 who soon turned radical mystic, left the brotherhood, also was bitterly opposed by Menno Simons, and lived under a pseudonym in Basel as a wealthy merchant the last 12 years of his life. He was a capable glass painter and a sketcher of Biblical scenes; one of his sketches is in the Vienna Albertina Museum. Some of his preliminary drawings for the glass paintings are preserved in England. Other Anabaptist glass-painters (glas-schrijver, glasgraveur) are mentioned among the Dutch martyrs, such as [[Jan Woutersz van Cuyck (d. 1572)|Jan Woutersz van Cuyck]] who is called schildersartist en glasgraveur, and a certain Rommeken.

<h4>Netherlands</h4> A considerable number of the best Dutch artists have been Mennonites, particularly in the golden age of Dutch art, the 17th century, a few of them Mennonite preachers. It has sometimes been asserted that the greatest of all Dutch painters, [[Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1607-1669)|Rembrandt van Rijn]] (1607-1669), was a Mennonite. [[Kühler, Wilhelmus Johannes (1874-1946)|Kühler]] calls him a Mennonite (Geschiedenis II, 1, p. 58), as does Hendrik van Loon in his biography of Rembrandt. However, the best and most recent scholarship hesitates to claim this with finality, holding as to actual [[Church Membership|church membership]] only that "it is probable that Rembrandt at the end of the 1650's either belonged to or stood close to a freer circle of [[Waterlanders|Waterlander Mennonites]] which stood under [[Collegiants|Collegiant]] domination" (H. M. Rotermund, Rembrandt und die religiösen Laienbewegungen in den Niederlanden im 17. Jahrhundert, 1952). In any case Rembrandt's religion was in its deepest essence Mennonite, formed by Mennonite influences, and his essential spirit and expression were Mennonite in character. This is asserted not only by Rotermund, but also by other scholars, most recently by L. Venturi in Painting and painters (N.Y., 1948), and Jacob Rosenberg in Rembrandt (Cambridge, 1948). The great Rembrandt scholar, F. Schmidt-Degener, says that Rembrandt was "the obvious product of Mennonite environment."

[[File:Isaac%20Newton%20by%20Enoch%20Seeman%201725.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''"Sir Isaac Newton" by [[Seemann, Enoch, Jr. (1694-1744)|Enoch Seemann]], 1725'']]
The first Dutch Mennonite painter, coming before the 17th century, was [[Mander, Karel van (1548-1606)|Carel van Mander]] (1548-1606), of the stricter Old Flemish group. Among the leading Dutch painters of the golden age were [[Mierevelt, Michiel Janszn van (1567-1641)|Michiel J. van Mierevelt]] (1567-1641; [[Jacobsz, Lambert (ca. 1598-1636)|Lambert Jacobsz]] (ca. 1598-1636); [[Backer, Jacob Adriaensz (1608-1651)|Jacob Adriaensz Backer]] (1608-1651); Rembrandt's close friend and pupil [[Flinck, Govert (1615-1660)|Govert Flinck]] (1614-1660); Salomon [[Ruisdael, van, family|van Ruysdael]] (1605-1670), and his famous nephew Jacob van Ruisdael (1628-1682); [[Hoogstraten, Samuel van (1627-1678)|Samuel van Hoogstraten]] (1627-1678); [[Tempel, Abraham van den (1622-1672)|Abraham van den Tempel]] (1622-1672), the son of Lambert Jacobsz; and [[Heyden, Jan van der (1637-1712)|Jan van der Heyden]] (1637-1712). There was also the noted copperplate-engraver [[Luiken, Jan (1649-1712)|Jan Luiken]] (1649-1712) who was a Mennonite for only a few years, 1673-1675. Dutch Mennonite artists of later times include: [[Mauve, Anton (1838-1888)|Anton Mauve (1838-1888)]], Hendrik Willem Mesdag (1831-1915), and Sientje Mesdag van Houten (1834-1909). Except for Carel van a Mander and Lambert Jacobsz, the Dutch Mennonite artists were not prominent in church life.

[[File:Balthasar Denner 003.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Porträt einer alten Frau by [[Denner, Balthasar (1685-1749)|Balthasar Denner]] 
Source: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Balthasar_Denner_003.jpg Wikipedia Commons]'']]
<h4>Germany</h4> In [[Germany|Germany]] the two Hamburg painters, Jakob called [[Denner, Balthasar (1685-1749)|Balthasar Denner]] (1685-1749) and [[Smissen, Dominicus van der (1704-1760)|Dominicus van der Smissen]] (1704-1760), contributed a great deal to art; paintings by the former are found in all of the more important European art galleries. [[Seemann, Enoch, Jr. (1694-1744)|Enoch Seemann, Jr.]] (b. 1694 in Elbing, d. 1744 in London), a talented painter and engraver, was a member of the [[Danzig Mennonite Church (Gdansk, Poland)|Danzig Mennonite Church]]. In the 19th century Berend Goos (1815-1885) won recognition for his paintings of animals and landscapes. The same is true of the sculptor Emil Heinrich Wurtz, who immigrated to America and lost his life in his prime in the wreck of the S.S. Burgoyne on 4 July 1898 at the age of 42 ([[Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender (Periodical)|Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender]] 1905, 45 ff.). There are also the [[Krefeld (Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany)|Krefeld]] painters, Moritz von Beckerath (1836-96), painter of historical scenes, and Willy von Beckerath (b. 1868 ), painter and art dealer, and the Danzigers Heinrich Zimmermann (1804-1845), Richard Loewens (1856-1885), and Hans Mekelburger (1884-1915) who fell on the field of battle in [[Poland|Poland]] in 1915 at the age of 30 at the beginning of a promising career; the Königsbergers Johann Wientz (years 1781-1849) and Franz Theodor Zimmermann (1807-1877?). South German Mennonites have produced one good artist, [[Wohlgemuth, Daniel (1876-1967)|Daniel Wohlgemuth]] (1875-1967) of the [[Weierhof (Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany)|Weierhof]] ([[Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany)|Palatinate]]) community living in 1950 at Gundersheim near Worms. Of lesser rank is Fritz Mosimann of Mulhouse, [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] (since 1914 French territory), member of the Pfastatt congregation, who painted local Alsatian landscapes and scenes. The outstanding modern artist of the West Prussian Mennonites, however, was Marie Birckholtz-Bestvater (b. 1888 at Preussisch-Konigsdorf, near Danzig, West Prussia) studied in [[Berlin (Germany)|Berlin]] and [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]] 1908-1913, and lived in the Danzig-Zoppot area, where she had her studio until 1945. After living in Berlin 1945-1947, she immigrated to [[Buenos Aires (Argentina)|Buenos Aires]] in 1947, where she was employed in the ceramics firm "Tadeco." Mrs. Birckholtz's mediums were oil and watercolor, her themes landscapes (earlier largely West Prussian) and figure sketches. She had numerous one-woman shows. Most of her works were destroyed or lost in [[West Prussia|West Prussia]] during the war, a few taken along to [[Argentina|Argentina]]. Mention should also be made of [[Beckerath, Wolf von (1896-1944)|Wolf von Beckerath]] (1896-1944) of Krefeld, and the sculptor Heinrich Mekelburger.

<h4>Russia</h4> [[Janzen, Johannes Heinrich (1868-1917)|Johannes Heinrich Janzen]] (1868-1917), teacher and preacher of Gnadenfeld in the [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna]], South [[Russia|Russia]], was the first able artist among the Russian Mennonites. Although he had no formal training, his drawings and oil paintings were of good quality. His favorite theme was the Molotschna landscape. Six of his oil paintings have been brought to America, the best being: "Peace on the Molotschna" (A Russian Mennonite farmstead) and "The Thunderstorm," both in the possession of the family of his late brother, [[Janzen, Jacob H. (1878-1950)|Elder Jacob H. Janzen]] (1878-1950) of Waterloo, Ontario. One of Janzen's finest products was Das Märchen vom Weihnachtsmann, his own version of the Christmas story, richly illustrated in colors with his own drawings. He also did the illustrations for his brother Jacob H. Janzen's (Zenian), Denn meine Augen haben Deinen Heiland gesehen (Hamburg, v.d. Höhe, ca. 1924).

Hans Janzen (1893-1967), son of the above Johannes Heinrich, was the outstanding Mennonite artist in Russia. His favorite theme was also the Molotschna landscape, although he painted portraits as well. He was educated in [[Moscow (Russia)|Moscow]], and then taught mathematics, physics, and art at the [[Ohrloff Mennonitische Zentralschule (Ohrloff, Molotschna Mennonite Settlement, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Mennonite Zentralschule]] at Orloff in the [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna colony]]. He remained in the Soviet Union, reportedly dying in the [[Caucasus|Caucasus]] Region on September 24 or 25, 1967. Twelve of his paintings were brought to America. Hans Janzen copied in black and white his father's illustrations for a mimeographed edition of Das Märchen vom Weihnachtsmann, which was published by his uncle, Elder [[Janzen, Jacob H. (1878-1950)|Jacob H. Janzen]], in Canada.

Perhaps a still finer artist of Russian Mennonite background is [[Neufeld, Woldemar Heinrich (1909-2002)|Woldemar Neufeld]], stepson of Elder [[Janzen, Jacob H. (1878-1950)|Jacob Janzen]] (Waterloo), b. 1909 at Waldheim, Molotschna, who was a student of Hans Janzen in the Orloff school and came to [[Canada|Canada]] in 1924. He is therefore properly considered an American artist. After study at Waterloo College, Neufeld attended the Cleveland School of Art (1935-39) and then set up the Neufeld Studios in New York City and New Preston, Connecticut (1949). He held one-man shows in [[Cleveland (Ohio, USA)|Cleveland]], [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]], New York, [[Toronto (Ontario, Canada)|Toronto]], and elsewhere. He specialized in color prints and in watercolor, and painted numerous [[Waterloo County (Ontario, Canada)|Waterloo County]] landscapes. The Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, the Cleveland Museum of Public Art, and many private collectors own his color prints. (See American artist, XVI, Jan. 1952, "Presenting Woldemar Neufeld," 48 ff.

John P. Klassen (b. 1888), born in [[Kronsgarten (Chortitza Mennonite Settlement, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, Ukraine)|Kronsgarten]], [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza]], received professional art training at the Universities of Berlin and [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]], and taught art in the [[Chortitza Zentralschule (Chortitza, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza Zentralschule]] in [[Russia|Russia]] before coming to the [[United States of America|United States]] in 1924. He became professor of art at [[Bluffton University (Bluffton, Ohio, USA)|Bluffton College]] in 1924, his own specialty being small sculpture, including bas-relief and plaques. Among his works are a bust of Menno Simons and one of N. C. Hirschy (d. 1916), first president of Bluffton College.

J. Sudermann, born ca. 1900 in the [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza settlement]], educated in Russia and Germany, was an outstanding artist, poet, and teacher among the Mennonites of the [[Ukraine|Ukraine]], last heard of in a concentration camp in Siberia. His favorite themes in oil and watercolor were the landscapes and buildings in the [[Chortitza Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza]] area, among them the [[Chortitza Mennonite Church (Chortitza, Chortitza Mennonite Settlement, Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Chortitza Mennonite Church]] painted in 1932. A number of his works were brought by relatives to Canada 1947 ff. Johann Funk, formerly a teacher in [[Arkadak (Saratov Oblast, Russia)|Arkadak]], Barstow, since 1930 in Paraguay, deserves passing mention.

Alexander Harder, a son of preacher Bernhard Harder, and brother of novelist [[Harder, Johannes "Hans" (1903-1987)|Hans Harder]], born and reared in the [[Alexandertal Mennonite Settlement (Samara Oblast, Russia)|Alexandertal settlement near Samara]] on the Volga River, Russia, but living in Germany after 1924, at Hanau near Frankfurt, painted many Russian scenes and landscapes. He is known also for his oil painting of Menno Simons, done for the 1936 Mennonite World Conference.

<h4>United States and Canada</h4> The chief North American Mennonite artists of native stock are Arthur L. Sprunger (b. 1897) of Goshen, Indiana, of Swiss background, and [[Schenk, Oliver Wendell "Tom" (1903-1996)|Oliver Wendell Schenk]] (1903-1996) of an old Virginia-Ohio Mennonite family. Of immigrant Russian Mennonite stock are Hans Bartsch (b. 1884) born at [[Tashkent (Toshkent Province, Uzbekistan)|Tashkent]], [[Turkestan|Turkestan]], immigrated to [[Newton (Kansas, USA)|Newton]], [[Kansas (USA)|Kansas]], 1893-4, now resident in New York City; J. P. Klassen (b. 1888) born in Kronsgarten, Chortitza, Russia, immigrated to [[Bluffton (Ohio, USA)|Bluffton, Ohio]], 1924 and since then resident there; Woldemar Neufeld (b. 1909) born at Waldheim, [[Molotschna Mennonite Settlement (Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine)|Molotschna]], immigrated to Waterloo, Ontario, in 1924, later resident in New Preston, Conn.; and D. G. Rempel, born in Russia, immigrated to Bluffton, Ohio, in 1922, student of J. P. Klassen at Bluffton, then in Akron, Ohio, as a designer and manufacturer of toys, known for his fine small sculpture "The Fallen Horseman," now in the [[Bluffton University (Bluffton, Ohio, USA)|Bluffton College Library]], relating an incident in the [[Ukraine|Ukraine]] in 1919. Elder Johannes Janzen, formerly a teacher in the [[Turkestan|Turkestan]] (Russian) Mennonite settlement, resident in the [[Stoltz Plateau (Santa Catarina, Brazil)|Stoltz Plateau]] colony in Santa Catharina, Brazil, from 1930 until recently, now located in the new settlement at [[Witmarsum Colony (Paraná State, Brazil)|Witmarsum]] in [[Paraná (Brazil)|Paraná]], painted numerous scenes in the [[Krauel Colony (Alto Krauel District, Santa Catarina, Brazil)|Krauel Colony]] (Santa Catharina) in oil. -- ''Harold S. Bender''
= Bibliography =
Boekenoogen, G. J. "De Portretten van Menno Simons." Doopsgezinde Bijdragen (1916): 33-106. With images.

Cate, Steven Blaupot ten. Geschiedenis der Doopsgezinden in Friesland. Leeuwarden: W. Eekhoff, 1839: 307-308.

Christlicher Gemeinde-Kalender (1905): 45 ff.

Geisberg, Max. Die münsterischen Wiedertäufer und Aldegrever: eine ikonographische und numismatische Studie. Studien zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte, Heft 76. Baden-Baden: V. Koerner, 1977.

Gomersall, R. "A Father and Son Paint" (on the Newswangers and their Amish etchings). American-German Review 17 (1950): 10-13.

Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. ''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 221; v. II, 241-243.

Houbraken, Arnold. De Groote Schouburgh der Nederlantsche Konstschilders en Schilderessen, 3 vols. Amsterdam, 1718 and 1719.

Huizinga, Johan. Holländische kultur des siebzehnten jahrhunderts : ihre sozialen grundlagen und nationale. Jena : E. Diederichs, 1933.

Hylkema, C. B. Reformateurs: Beschiedkundige studiën over de godsdienstige bewegingen uit de nadagen onzer Gouden Eeuw, 2 vols. in 1. Haarlem: H.D. Tjeenk Willink en Zoon, 1900: v.II, 6

Klassen, J. P. "Mennonite Ideals in Art." Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference on Mennonite Cultural Problems. North Newton, 1945: 135-145.

Kühler, Wilhelmus Johannes. Geschiedenis van de Doopsgezinden in Nederland II. 1600-1735 Eerste Helft. Haarlem: H.D. Tjeenk Willink & Zoon n.v., 1940: 58-59.

Mander, Carel van. Het schilderboek: het leven van de doorluchtige Nederlandse en Hoogduitse schilders. Amsterdam: Wereldbibliotheek, 1995.

Mennonite life containing the following articles: S. Smeding. "The Portraits of Menno Simons." (July 1948): 16-19; K. Kauenhoven. "Mennonite Artists -- Danzig and Koenigsberg." (July 1949): 17-23; C. Krahn, "Rembrandt. the Bible, and the Mennonites." (1952): 3-6; H. M. Rotermund. "Rembrandt and the Mennonites." (1952): 7-10; A. Sudermann. "Traum und Wirklichkeit" (on J. Sudermann)." (1953): 17-23.

Mitteilungen des Sippenverbandes der Danziger Menn.-Familien Epp-Kauenhoven-Zimmerman, containing the following articles by Kurt Kauenhoven: "Wie trugen sich unsere mennonitische Vorfahren." VI, 1940: 62-4 and 94-5; "Die gottesdienstlichen Gebräuche unserer mennonitischen Vorfahren (Aus den Bildern von Bernard Picart);" "Die Abendmahlsfeier." VI: 98-101; "Die Taufe." VI: 129-32; "Die erste gedruckte Erwähnung der Danziger Kauenhoven 1697." VI: 111-16, referring to Enoch Seemann, Sr., with bibliographical references.

"Presenting Woldemar Neufeld." American Artist 16 (January 1952): 48 ff.

Rosenberg, Jakob. Rembrandt: Life & Work. [London]: Phaidon Publishers, 1964.

Rotermund, H. -M. Rembrandt und die religiösen Laienbewegungen in den Niederlanden seiner Zeit. Bussum: Nederlands kunsthistorisch Jaarboek, 1953.

Rues, Simeon Friderich. Tegenwoordige staet der Doopsgezinden of Mennoniten, in de Vereenigde Nederlanden: waeragter komt een berigt van de Rynsburgers of Collegianten. T' Amsterdam: By F. Houttuyn, 1745: 27.

Scheffer, Jacob Gijsbert de Hoop. Geschiedenis der kerkhervorming in Nederland van haar ontstaan tot 1531. Amsterdam: G.L. Funke, 1873: 3.

Schmidt Degener, F. "Menniste Portretten." Onze Kunst I (1914): 1 ff.

Smeding, S. "The Portraits of Menno Simons." Mennonite Life (July 1948): 16-19.

Venturi, Lionello. Painting and painters; how to look at a picture, from Giotto to Chagall. New York, C. Scribner’s sons, [1945]

Two American Mennonite periodicals have given attention to reproducing the work of Mennonite artists, Die Mennonitische Warte (Steinbach, Man., 1935-38) and Mennonite life (North Newton, Kans., 1946 The former published a few watercolors and pen-and-ink sketches by the Russian-American artists J. P. Klassen ([[Bluffton (Ohio, USA)|Bluffton]]), John Funk (Saskatoon), and [[Dyck, Arnold (Abram Bernhard) (1889-1970)|Arnold Dyck]] (Steinbach-Winnipeg). Dyck, who studied art in [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]], though more active as a writer than an artist, has illustrated some of his own writings with human-interest figure sketches. Mennonite life has covered a broad scope in its reproductions. Articles or reproductions have dealt with the following: A. L. Sprunger, J. P. Klassen, Aurèle Robert, J. Sudermann, Alexander Harder, E. Seemann, H. Zimmermann, F. T. Zimmermann, J. Wientz, Rembrandt, A. Hendriks and the earlier Menno Simons portraits, D. Chodowiecky, D. Wohlgemuth, Heinrich Mekelburger, M. Birckholtz-Bestvater.
{{GAMEO_footer-3|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 165-172|date=1955|a1_last=Zijpp|a1_first=Nanne van der|a2_last=Kossen|a2_first=Dirk|a3_last=Bender|a3_first=Harold S.}}

Wasen (Berne, Switzerland)

2022-04-28T13:33:36Z

JoeSpringer: Corrected typographical error found in original ME which had "Kurzenri" instead of "Kurzenei"

Wasen, one of the larger villages in the [[Emmental (Switzerland)|Emmental]], [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], to which the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] movement found early entry. In the 16th century there was a considerable congregation there, which held its meetings in a lonely spot in the forest known as the Täuferloch (Anabaptist Hollow), back in the valley of the Kurzenei, between cliffs. Their leader, Hans Meister, a close friend of Hans Haslibacher, for many years evaded his captors in a hiding place in his own house. He was buried in his house; for when the house was rebuilt in the 19th century his skeleton was found there. A mason, Peter Ritter, who made fun of the skull, was immediately stricken with violent pains and died soon after. (The Zionspilger of 1890, No. 18, p. 3, reprints an article on Wasen from the Berner Tagblatt of 1 September 1890).
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 4, p. 892|date=1959|a1_last=Geiser|a1_first=Samuel|a2_last= |a2_first= }}

Funk, John Fretz (1835-1930)

2021-07-02T14:09:26Z

JoeSpringer: Added information that the Funk video was produced in 2021--date not otherwise indicated.

[[File:ME2-19-3.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''John F. Funk (1835-1930)'']]
John Fretz Funk: probably the outstanding leader of the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]] in the 19th century; son of Jacob Funk and Salome Fretz, was born on 6 April 1835 on the family homestead in Hilltown Township, [[Bucks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bucks County]], [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]], where he spent the first 22 years of his life. He was a great-grandson of immigrant [[Funck, Heinrich (d. 1760)| Bishop Heinrich Funck]] (d. 1760). He was married to Salome Kratz 19 January 1864. One of his two daughters, Phoebe, married [[Kolb, Abram B. (1862-1925)|A. B. Kolb]]. John died on 8 January 1930 and was buried in the Prairie Street (Elkhart, Indiana) [[Cemeteries|cemetery]].

John's only higher education, two terms at [[Freeland Seminary (Collegeville, Pennsylvania, USA)|Freeland Seminary]] (now Ursinus College), prepared him for a career of public school teaching in his home community, but after two years in that profession, he entered the lumber business in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]] (arriving 11 April 1857) with his brother-in-law Jacob Beidler (later in partnership with John F. Rittenhouse), in which he continued successfully for ten years. On 6 April 1867 he moved to [[Elkhart (Indiana, USA)|Elkhart]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]], with the printing and publishing business he had established in Chicago 1 January 1864. Here he spent the rest of his long and active life.

The ten years in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]] were decisive in Funk's life. Here in 1858 he was converted in a Presbyterian revival, here he met and associated intimately with [[Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-1899)|D. L. Moody]] (1861-1867), to whom he attributed much of the influence which moved him into active Christian service with progressive ideas in Sunday school, evangelism, and religious publication, far in advance of the lethargic mid-century Mennonite (MC) Church of his fathers. His decision to cast his lot with this church (he returned to [[Bucks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bucks County]] for [[Baptism|baptism]] in 1860, and was ordained as a minister for the struggling [[Cullom Mennonite Church (Cullom, Illinois, USA)|Cullom, IL, congregation]] some 50 miles south of Chicago in May 1865) and assume aggressive leadership was an event of major significance for the North American Mennonitism far beyond the bounds of his own denomination, for besides being a pioneer Mennonite publisher, he played a major role in the immigration and colonization of the Russian Mennonites in the [[United States of America|United States]] and [[Canada|Canada]] 1873-1880, and in effect became the publisher for the Manitoba Mennonites. He did not become a bishop until 6 June 1892 (rendered inactive 31 January 1902, when his active career as a church leader came to an end), but he was by all odds the most influential leader for 30 years (1870-1900), shaping the course of the Mennonite Church.

His base of operation was his publishing house, established at Elkhart as [[John F. Funk & Brother|John F. Funk and Brother ]]1867-1875, then incorporated as the [[Mennonite Publishing Company (Elkhart, Indiana, USA)|Mennonite Publishing Co]]., 1875-1925, with widely held stock ownership. (Unfortunately a bank failure in 1903, which cost him a personal loss of $40,000, and a fire in 1906 caused the company to become bankrupt in 1906, a blow from which he never recovered, although he continued in business selling book stocks and doing some publishing of reprints of older titles until the age of 90 in 1925.) His great influence through the church paper [[Herald of Truth (Periodical)|Herald of Truth]] (German edition, [[Herold der Wahrheit (1864-1901) (Periodical)|Herold der Wahrheit]] 1864-1902) was supplemented by his wide traveling and speaking, conference work, and personal influence. He gathered a group of progressive younger men around him and made Elkhart the strong center of church leadership and growth. He brought [[Coffman, John S. (1848-1899)|J. S. Coffman]], the noted evangelist, to Elkhart as an editor in 1879; [[Horsch, John (1867-1941)|John Horsch]], a writer and historian, in 1887; [[Bender, George Lewis (1867-1921)|G. L. Bender]], a mission leader, in 1890. [[Mumaw, Henry A. (1850-1908)|H. A. Mumaw]], the ultimate founder of the [[Elkhart Institute (Elkhart, Indiana, USA)|Elkhart Institute]]/[[Goshen College (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Goshen College]] (1894), was attracted. In Elkhart the mission headquarters of the Mennonite Church was established (1892); here the Mennonite Aid Plan was founded (1882); from here the first foreign missionaries were sent out to [[India|India]] (1898) at a meeting presided over by Funk. Here the first relief agency was organized (1897). In the church which Funk founded and of which he was the pastor (1871-1902) the first young people's meeting was established (1890?), and one of the first Sunday schools (1870). In 1872 Funk, with [[Brenneman, Daniel (1834-1919)|Daniel Brenneman]], conducted the first evangelistic services ([[Masontown Mennonite Church (Masontown, Pennsylvania, USA)|Masontown, PA]], in 1872) in the Mennonite Church (MC). He wrote the first Sunday-school helps (1880), published the first Sunday-school magazine. In all these good forward steps Funk was a leading figure, if not the actual innovator, moving cautiously, often with great courage, against much opposition, using the columns of the Herald in vigorous promotion,

One of Funk's great contributions was his creative combination of conservatism and progress. He had a deep historical sense and anchored the church in its great historic heritage. He published Menno Simons' Complete Works in English (1871) and German (1876) early in his career and the[[Martyrs' Mirror| Martyrs' Mir]][[Martyrs' Mirror|ror]] likewise in German (1870) and in English (1886), in addition to a vast amount of historical articles on the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] and Mennonites (largely by[[Horsch, John (1867-1941)| John Horsch]] ), and built up an excellent Mennonite historical library (the core of the Goshen College [[Mennonite Historical Library (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Mennonite Historical Library]]). He himself wrote The Mennonite Church and her accusers (Elkhart, 1878), a defense against the attacks of the Reformed Mennonite writer Musser against the Mennonite Church. He stood firmly against the Methodistic type of more emotionalized piety (Brenneman and [[Mennonite Brethren in Christ|Mennonite Brethren in Christ]], 1875) and equally vigorously resisted the reactionary type (Wisler, 1871). He guided the church in gradual change down the middle of the road, and is more responsible than any other one man (teamed with J. S. Coffman) for the general character of the Mennonite Church (MC) in the 20th century in its middle-of-the-road position between tradition on the one hand and undirected progress on the other. He also played a wise and good role in preparing the reunion of the Mennonite and [[Amish Mennonites|Amish]] bodies, which came to full fruition 1915-25.

Funk's contribution as a publisher is remarkable. His major periodical publications include [[Herald of Truth (Periodical)|Herald of Truth]] (1864 until its merger with [[Gospel Witness (Periodical)|Gospel Witness]] to form the [[Gospel Herald (Periodical)|''Gospel Herald'']] in 1908), [[Mennonitische Rundschau, Die (Periodical)|Mennonitische Rundschau]] (1878-1908), Mennonite Sunday School quarterly (1890-1908, several levels). He published in repeated editions the prayer books, hymnbooks, catechisms, and confessions which became the household books of Mennonites (including the Russian Mennonites and the Amish) in the second half of the 19th century.

Funk's role in the great Russian immigration was outstanding. [[Jansen, Peter (1852-1923)|Peter Jansen]] wrote, "My Father, [[Jansen, Cornelius (1822-1894)|Cornelius Jansen]], always said you were more responsible than any other man." His home in Elkhart was the first stopping place, not only of the 12 delegates from [[Russia|Russia]] in 1873, but of hundreds of immigrants in 1874ff., who stayed at his home or were quartered in the [[Prairie Street Mennonite Church (Elkhart, Indiana, USA)|Prairie Street Mennonite Church]]. He was the channel of contact with U.S. senators and the great railroads. He personally conducted the delegates on their tours to [[Minnesota (USA)|Minnesota]], Dakota, [[Nebraska (USA)|Nebraska]], and [[Kansas (USA)|Kansas]]. He helped to organize the great U.S.-based aid agency, [[Mennonite Board of Guardians|Mennonite Board of Guardians]], of which he served as treasurer for many years. He negotiated reduced rates for transportation by steamship companies and railroads, and raised both loan funds .and relief donations for the needy settlers in their first hard pioneer years. His name was a household word among the Mennonites of Manitoba, who had read his Rundschau for two generations, and for whom he published their confession, [[Catechism|catechism]], and hymnbooks for 50 years.

Fortunately Funk's great work was done by 1902, when through unwise methods of working as a bishop, and through mismanagement of his publisher-church relations he was forced into an unworthy retirement at the age of 67 (1902-1908). Fortunately also his publishing work was salvaged by the organization of a Mennonite Church (MC)-owned Publication Board (1908) and Publishing House; the school which he had first encouraged (then opposed), Goshen College, stepped into the place of progressive leadership, and the Mennonite Church General Conference (MC) (unifying the regional Mennonite Church conferences, including the Ontario conference) which he long and vigorously advocated (though later failed to support) became the unifying factor in his church.
= Bibliography =
Dean, William Ward. "John F. Funk and the Mennonite Awakening." Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1965.

Gates, Helen Kolb. Bless the Lord O My Soul : a Biography of Bishop John Fretz Funk, 1835-1930, Creative Pioneer for Christ and Mennonite Leader, edited by J. C. Wenger. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1964.

Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. ''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. II, 19.

Kolb, A. C. "John Fretz Funk, 1835-1930: An Appreciation." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 6 (1932): 44-55, 250-63.

Kolb, A. C. A Brief Historical Sketch of the Life of John F. Funk and His Brother Abraham K. Funk While Engaged in the Publishing Business as the Mennonite Publishing Company From 1864 to 1825. Elkhart, 1925.

Loucks, Aaron. John Fretz Funk, 1835-1930. Elkhart, 1930.

Schnell, K. "John F. Funk , 1835-1930, and the Mennonite Migration of 1873-75." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 24 (1950):199-229.

Schnell, K. "John F. Funk's Land Inspection Trips as Recorded in His Diaries." ''Mennonite Quarterly Review'' 24 (1950): 295-311.
= Additional Information =
[https://archives.mhsc.ca/index.php/john-f-john-fretz-funk-papers-1852-1929 John F. Funk manuscript collection], located at [https://www.mennoniteusa.org/historical-archives/ Mennonite Church USA Archives], Elkhart, Indiana

{{#ev:youtube|Btv6ZkdTunU||right|''The Life and Legacy of John F. Funk (1835-1930) by Nelson Kraybill. Produced in 2021. Source: YouTube''}}
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 2, pp. 421-423|date=1956|a1_last=Bender|a1_first=Harold S|a2_last= |a2_first= }}
[[Category:Persons]]
[[Category:Publishers]]

Petter, Marie Gerber (1869-1910)

2021-04-30T16:19:09Z

JoeSpringer:

[[File:MLA2003-0280.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Petter family living in a tent cabin

near Fonda, Oklahoma, while

church was being built; L-R: Marie

Petter, Rodolphe Petter, ? (standing),

Chief Mower, ?, ?, Valdo Petter,

daughter of Mower, daughter of

Mower, ?, ?. Source [http://www.bethelks.edu/mla/holdings/scans/ Mennonite

Library and Archives]. Photo 2003-0280'']] Marie Gerber Petter, was a [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite]] (GCM) missionary among the Southern [[Cheyenne People|Cheyenne]] and Arapaho in [[Oklahoma (USA)|Oklahoma]] (Indian Territory) from 1891 to 1910.

She was born 24 October 1869 to Christian Gerber (7 August 1818-27 January 1888) and Elizabeth Geiser Gerber (4 June 1827-30 December 1890), Mennonites living on the Les Veaux Farm in the [[Jura Mountains|Jura Mountains]] of [[Switzerland|Switzerland]]. (Her similarly-named elder sister [[Gerber, Maria A. (1858-1917)|Maria Anna Gerber]] was a deaconess and later relief worker in Armenia.) In 1890 Marie married [[Petter, Rodolphe Charles (1865-1947)|Rodolphe Petter]], of Reformed Church background, whom she had met while he was visiting her brother. When she and Rodolphe married, he joined her church.

When S. F. Sprunger from [[Berne (Indiana, USA)|Berne, Indiana]], visited Switzerland, he persuaded the Petters to come to the [[United States of America|United States]] as the first Swiss Mennonite missionaries. The Petters toured Mennonite congregations in [[North America|North America]] and spent a year in English language study before beginning their missionary assignment in Indian Territory. They were the first missionary couple there to be assigned exclusively to reaching adults and to learning the language. Two children were born to the Petters: Olga and Valdo. Marie Gerber Petter died 31 July 1910 of tuberculosis. She is buried in the [[Cantonment Mennonite Mission (Canton, Oklahoma, USA)|Cantonment]], Oklahoma.
= Bibliography =
Barrett, Lois. The Vision and the Reality: The Story of Home Missions in the General Conference Mennonite Church. Newton, KS: Faith and Life, 1983: index.

Petter, Rodolphe. "Some Reminiscences of Past Years in My Mission Service Among the Cheyenne." Mennonite 51, no. 44 (10 November 1936): 16 (also printed as a separate pamphlet).
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 5, pp. 699-700|date=1987|a1_last=Barrett|a1_first=Lois|a2_last= |a2_first= }}

Gerber, Maria A. (1858-1917)

2021-04-30T16:18:29Z

JoeSpringer: Corrected link

__FORCETOC__
__TOC__
[[File:Maria-Gerber-with-orphans-at-Zinjidere-Turkey.jpg|300px|thumb|''Maria-Gerber-with-orphans-at-Zinjidere-Turkey, ca. 1910. Photo courtesy of Max Haines'']]
Maria Anna Gerber was born as "Marianna" in Les Vaux, [[Bern (Switzerland)|Canton Bern]], [[Switzerland]] on 30 May 1858 to a Mennonite couple, Christian Gerber (7 August 1818-27 January 1888) and Elizabeth Geiser Gerber (4 June 1827-30 December 1890). She was the seventh child in a family of seven daughters and five sons that lived on a farm called Bellelay. (Her similarly-named younger sister [[Petter, Marie Gerber (1869-1910)|Marie Gerber Petter]] was a missionary among Native Americans in Oklahoma.) A sickly child, at the age of 12 Maria became ill with rheumatic fever, tuberculosis, and edema. A doctor told her family that Maria would die and her mother gave away her clothes. This near-death experience led Maria to a profound conversion experience following which she felt the call of the Lord to be a witness for Him. Maria Gerber never married. She died 17 January 1917 in Pasadena, [[California (USA)|California]], USA. She is buried in Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale), Glendale, California.

Maria Gerber went to Bern to join a Deaconess Home in 1881 and also took training to become a nurse. On 21 April 1885 she left the home after the head sister felt Maria had an independent and presumptuous spirit that did not fit into the Deaconess Home.

Maria met [[Sprunger, John A. (1852-1911)|Rev. and Mrs. J. A. Sprunger]] in 1889 when they were visiting and evangelizing in Switzerland and became interested in their vision of a deaconess work in the USA. She arrived in New York on 31 July 1891, and attended the New York Missionary Training College of the Christian and Missionary Alliance in that city.

Maria Gerber then journeyed to [[Berne (Indiana, USA)|Berne]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]] and helped to train the initial group of deaconesses for the new [[Light and Hope Missionary Society|Missionary Society Light and Hope]] in 1892. Maria also had contact with [[Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-1899)|Dwight Moody]] and his Bible Institute in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]] and during the 1893 World’s Fair she was a soloist during his evangelistic campaigns.

In October 1894 she opened the Light and Hope Hospital in [[Cleveland (Ohio, USA)|Cleveland]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]]. She was in charge of that hospital when it burned on 1 February 1895. One deaconess nurse and three patients died in that fire. The hospital soon reopened in another location in Cleveland. Part of her job entailed fundraising. In 1895 she went to [[Waterloo County (Ontario, Canada)|Waterloo County]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], [[Canada]] and visited several Mennonite churches raising funds for the Cleveland orphanage. At a later time, she and Helen Penner went to Europe raising funds for an Armenian mission. Mennonites in [[Russia]] helped to support orphans in [[United Orphanage and Mission Society, The|The United Orphanage and Mission Society]].

In May 1896 Maria Gerber was one of the deaconess nurses who helped start what is now Bromenn Hospital in [[Bloomington (Illinois, USA)|Bloomington]], [[Illinois (USA)|Illinois]]. She was a dear friend of [[Musselman, Rose Lambert (1878-1974)|Sister Rose Lambert]] and the plight of the persecuted Armenians in [[Turkey]] weighed heavily on their hearts. Garabed Der Hagopian, a survivor of the 1894-1896 Armenian massacre, in which his wife died, had pleaded for the cause of the many orphans left from that terrible time. His presentations included the Light and Hope Hospital in Cleveland, Ohio where Maria Gerber and Rose Lambert were both working. In November 1898 they set out for Turkey.

Maria Gerber and Rose Lambert arrived in Turkey at the end of 1898 and began their work in [[Hadjin (Adana, Turkey)|Hadjin]], a city of 30,000 in the Taurus Mountains. They rented houses where they could care for 200 orphans and fed hundreds of starving people. Maria also traveled from town to town sharing the gospel. Thanks to the gift of easily learning languages Maria was soon was conversant in the language. In Hadjin she found ways to make jobs for the many widows so they could provide for themselves. Support for the orphanage was given by friends in Europe and the United States, particularly from German Mennonite friends.

After five years in Hadjin, with her health failing, Maria Gerber returned to the United States in 1902 to recover. On her return to Turkey in 1904, Maria ministered in Konya (Iconium) for six months, then moved to near the city of Kayseri (Caesarea) in Cappadocia in a town called Zinjidere. A Greek businessman was sympathetic to Maria’s desire to build an orphanage and gave her two acres. Four stone houses were built in two years so that Zion Orphan’s Home opened in 1908.

In 1914 Maria became very ill and the orphans gathered around her bed in prayer and healing came to her body. After [[World War (1914-1918)|World War I]] broke out, Maria made a trip to the USA to seek more financial support. The Turkish military took over the Zion orphanage buildings. Maria was back in the USA before the Armenian genocide took took full force. In 1917 she completed a book, ''Passed experiences, present conditions, hope for the future'', on her life, designed to help raise funds for her orphanage.

Maria Gerber died after suffering several strokes in 1917. Her will left all the money she had raised to the Zion Orphans Home. She surely had a busy and productive life lived for her Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.

= Bibliography =
Cosmades, Thomas. "Maria, God’s angel to widows and orphans in Anatolia." Thomas Cosmades Foundation. 2009. Web. 14 February 2020. http://cosmades.org/articles/Maria%20%20God's%20Angel%20to%20Widows%20and%20Orphans%20with%20pictures.pdf.

Gerber, Maria A. ''Passed Experiences, Present Conditions, Hope for the Future''. Ramsey-Burnes Printing Co., Pasadena, California, 1917. Available in full electronic text at https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39076002820160&view=1up&seq=1.

''Gospel Banner'' (29 October 1895): 8; (5 November 1895): 8.

Huffman, Jasper A., ed. ''History of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ Church''. New Carlisle, Ohio: The Bethel Pub. Co, 1920: 193. Available in full electronic text at https://archive.org/details/historymennonit00huffgoog/page/n5/mode/2up.

"Maria Anna Gerber." Find a Grave. 15 July 2016. Web. 14 February 2020. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/167030968.

"Marianna Gerber." SAGA (Swiss Anabaptist Genealogical Association) Genealogical Website. Web. 12 May 2014. http://69.197.190.243/getperson.php?personID=I8622&tree=habegger.

Needham, Harold K. "Miss Mary Gerber with Jesus." ''The Weekly Evangel'' No. 221 (5 January 1918): 13. Available in full electronic text at https://pentecostalarchives.org/digitalPublications/USA/Assemblies%20of%20God%20USA/Pentecostal%20Evangel/Unregistered/1918/FPHC/1918_01_05.pdf#search=%22Gerber%22.

Niklaus, Robert L., John S. Swain and Samuel J. Stoetz. ''All for Jesus: God at work in the Christian and Missionary Alliance over one hundred years.'' Camp Hill, Pa.: Christian Publications, 1986: 103

Rodgers, Darrin J. "This week in AG history--Dec. 4, 1915." Assemblies of God. 6 December 2018. Web. 14 February 2020. https://news.ag.org/en/Features/This-Week-in-AG-History-Dec-4-1915.

{{GAMEO_footer|hp=|date=February 2020|a1_last=Haines|a1_first=Max|a2_last=Fuller|a2_first=Clare}}

[[Category:Persons]]
[[Category:Missionaries]]
[[Category:Mennonite Brethren in Christ Missionaries]]
[[Category:Missionaries in Turkey]]

Gerber, Maria A. (1858-1917)

2021-04-30T16:13:44Z

JoeSpringer: corrected link

__FORCETOC__
__TOC__
[[File:Maria-Gerber-with-orphans-at-Zinjidere-Turkey.jpg|300px|thumb|''Maria-Gerber-with-orphans-at-Zinjidere-Turkey, ca. 1910. Photo courtesy of Max Haines'']]
Maria Anna Gerber was born as "Marianna" in Les Vaux, [[Bern (Switzerland)|Canton Bern]], [[Switzerland]] on 30 May 1858 to a Mennonite couple, Christian Gerber (7 August 1818-27 January 1888) and Elizabeth Geiser Gerber (4 June 1827-30 December 1890). She was the seventh child in a family of seven daughters and five sons that lived on a farm called Bellelay. (Her similarly-named younger sister [https://gameo.org/Index.php?title=Petter, Marie Gerber (1869-1910) Marie Gerber Petter] was a missionary among Native Americans in Oklahoma.) A sickly child, at the age of 12 Maria became ill with rheumatic fever, tuberculosis, and edema. A doctor told her family that Maria would die and her mother gave away her clothes. This near-death experience led Maria to a profound conversion experience following which she felt the call of the Lord to be a witness for Him. Maria Gerber never married. She died 17 January 1917 in Pasadena, [[California (USA)|California]], USA. She is buried in Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale), Glendale, California.

Maria Gerber went to Bern to join a Deaconess Home in 1881 and also took training to become a nurse. On 21 April 1885 she left the home after the head sister felt Maria had an independent and presumptuous spirit that did not fit into the Deaconess Home.

Maria met [[Sprunger, John A. (1852-1911)|Rev. and Mrs. J. A. Sprunger]] in 1889 when they were visiting and evangelizing in Switzerland and became interested in their vision of a deaconess work in the USA. She arrived in New York on 31 July 1891, and attended the New York Missionary Training College of the Christian and Missionary Alliance in that city.

Maria Gerber then journeyed to [[Berne (Indiana, USA)|Berne]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]] and helped to train the initial group of deaconesses for the new [[Light and Hope Missionary Society|Missionary Society Light and Hope]] in 1892. Maria also had contact with [[Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-1899)|Dwight Moody]] and his Bible Institute in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]] and during the 1893 World’s Fair she was a soloist during his evangelistic campaigns.

In October 1894 she opened the Light and Hope Hospital in [[Cleveland (Ohio, USA)|Cleveland]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]]. She was in charge of that hospital when it burned on 1 February 1895. One deaconess nurse and three patients died in that fire. The hospital soon reopened in another location in Cleveland. Part of her job entailed fundraising. In 1895 she went to [[Waterloo County (Ontario, Canada)|Waterloo County]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], [[Canada]] and visited several Mennonite churches raising funds for the Cleveland orphanage. At a later time, she and Helen Penner went to Europe raising funds for an Armenian mission. Mennonites in [[Russia]] helped to support orphans in [[United Orphanage and Mission Society, The|The United Orphanage and Mission Society]].

In May 1896 Maria Gerber was one of the deaconess nurses who helped start what is now Bromenn Hospital in [[Bloomington (Illinois, USA)|Bloomington]], [[Illinois (USA)|Illinois]]. She was a dear friend of [[Musselman, Rose Lambert (1878-1974)|Sister Rose Lambert]] and the plight of the persecuted Armenians in [[Turkey]] weighed heavily on their hearts. Garabed Der Hagopian, a survivor of the 1894-1896 Armenian massacre, in which his wife died, had pleaded for the cause of the many orphans left from that terrible time. His presentations included the Light and Hope Hospital in Cleveland, Ohio where Maria Gerber and Rose Lambert were both working. In November 1898 they set out for Turkey.

Maria Gerber and Rose Lambert arrived in Turkey at the end of 1898 and began their work in [[Hadjin (Adana, Turkey)|Hadjin]], a city of 30,000 in the Taurus Mountains. They rented houses where they could care for 200 orphans and fed hundreds of starving people. Maria also traveled from town to town sharing the gospel. Thanks to the gift of easily learning languages Maria was soon was conversant in the language. In Hadjin she found ways to make jobs for the many widows so they could provide for themselves. Support for the orphanage was given by friends in Europe and the United States, particularly from German Mennonite friends.

After five years in Hadjin, with her health failing, Maria Gerber returned to the United States in 1902 to recover. On her return to Turkey in 1904, Maria ministered in Konya (Iconium) for six months, then moved to near the city of Kayseri (Caesarea) in Cappadocia in a town called Zinjidere. A Greek businessman was sympathetic to Maria’s desire to build an orphanage and gave her two acres. Four stone houses were built in two years so that Zion Orphan’s Home opened in 1908.

In 1914 Maria became very ill and the orphans gathered around her bed in prayer and healing came to her body. After [[World War (1914-1918)|World War I]] broke out, Maria made a trip to the USA to seek more financial support. The Turkish military took over the Zion orphanage buildings. Maria was back in the USA before the Armenian genocide took took full force. In 1917 she completed a book, ''Passed experiences, present conditions, hope for the future'', on her life, designed to help raise funds for her orphanage.

Maria Gerber died after suffering several strokes in 1917. Her will left all the money she had raised to the Zion Orphans Home. She surely had a busy and productive life lived for her Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.

= Bibliography =
Cosmades, Thomas. "Maria, God’s angel to widows and orphans in Anatolia." Thomas Cosmades Foundation. 2009. Web. 14 February 2020. http://cosmades.org/articles/Maria%20%20God's%20Angel%20to%20Widows%20and%20Orphans%20with%20pictures.pdf.

Gerber, Maria A. ''Passed Experiences, Present Conditions, Hope for the Future''. Ramsey-Burnes Printing Co., Pasadena, California, 1917. Available in full electronic text at https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39076002820160&view=1up&seq=1.

''Gospel Banner'' (29 October 1895): 8; (5 November 1895): 8.

Huffman, Jasper A., ed. ''History of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ Church''. New Carlisle, Ohio: The Bethel Pub. Co, 1920: 193. Available in full electronic text at https://archive.org/details/historymennonit00huffgoog/page/n5/mode/2up.

"Maria Anna Gerber." Find a Grave. 15 July 2016. Web. 14 February 2020. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/167030968.

"Marianna Gerber." SAGA (Swiss Anabaptist Genealogical Association) Genealogical Website. Web. 12 May 2014. http://69.197.190.243/getperson.php?personID=I8622&tree=habegger.

Needham, Harold K. "Miss Mary Gerber with Jesus." ''The Weekly Evangel'' No. 221 (5 January 1918): 13. Available in full electronic text at https://pentecostalarchives.org/digitalPublications/USA/Assemblies%20of%20God%20USA/Pentecostal%20Evangel/Unregistered/1918/FPHC/1918_01_05.pdf#search=%22Gerber%22.

Niklaus, Robert L., John S. Swain and Samuel J. Stoetz. ''All for Jesus: God at work in the Christian and Missionary Alliance over one hundred years.'' Camp Hill, Pa.: Christian Publications, 1986: 103

Rodgers, Darrin J. "This week in AG history--Dec. 4, 1915." Assemblies of God. 6 December 2018. Web. 14 February 2020. https://news.ag.org/en/Features/This-Week-in-AG-History-Dec-4-1915.

{{GAMEO_footer|hp=|date=February 2020|a1_last=Haines|a1_first=Max|a2_last=Fuller|a2_first=Clare}}

[[Category:Persons]]
[[Category:Missionaries]]
[[Category:Mennonite Brethren in Christ Missionaries]]
[[Category:Missionaries in Turkey]]

Petter, Marie Gerber (1869-1910)

2021-04-30T16:11:19Z

JoeSpringer: Added sentence about her similarly-named elder sister and a link to the Gameo article on her sister.

[[File:MLA2003-0280.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Petter family living in a tent cabin

near Fonda, Oklahoma, while

church was being built; L-R: Marie

Petter, Rodolphe Petter, ? (standing),

Chief Mower, ?, ?, Valdo Petter,

daughter of Mower, daughter of

Mower, ?, ?. Source [http://www.bethelks.edu/mla/holdings/scans/ Mennonite

Library and Archives]. Photo 2003-0280'']] Marie Gerber Petter, was a [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite]] (GCM) missionary among the Southern [[Cheyenne People|Cheyenne]] and Arapaho in [[Oklahoma (USA)|Oklahoma]] (Indian Territory) from 1891 to 1910.

She was born 24 October 1869 to Christian Gerber (7 August 1818-27 January 1888) and Elizabeth Geiser Gerber (4 June 1827-30 December 1890), Mennonites living on the Les Veaux Farm in the [[Jura Mountains|Jura Mountains]] of [[Switzerland|Switzerland]]. (Her similarly-named elder sister [[Index.php?title=Gerber, Maria A. (1858-1917)|Maria Anna Gerber]] was a deaconess and later relief worker in Armenia.) In 1890 Marie married [[Petter, Rodolphe Charles (1865-1947)|Rodolphe Petter]], of Reformed Church background, whom she had met while he was visiting her brother. When she and Rodolphe married, he joined her church.

When S. F. Sprunger from [[Berne (Indiana, USA)|Berne, Indiana]], visited Switzerland, he persuaded the Petters to come to the [[United States of America|United States]] as the first Swiss Mennonite missionaries. The Petters toured Mennonite congregations in [[North America|North America]] and spent a year in English language study before beginning their missionary assignment in Indian Territory. They were the first missionary couple there to be assigned exclusively to reaching adults and to learning the language. Two children were born to the Petters: Olga and Valdo. Marie Gerber Petter died 31 July 1910 of tuberculosis. She is buried in the [[Cantonment Mennonite Mission (Canton, Oklahoma, USA)|Cantonment]], Oklahoma.
= Bibliography =
Barrett, Lois. The Vision and the Reality: The Story of Home Missions in the General Conference Mennonite Church. Newton, KS: Faith and Life, 1983: index.

Petter, Rodolphe. "Some Reminiscences of Past Years in My Mission Service Among the Cheyenne." Mennonite 51, no. 44 (10 November 1936): 16 (also printed as a separate pamphlet).
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 5, pp. 699-700|date=1987|a1_last=Barrett|a1_first=Lois|a2_last= |a2_first= }}

Gerber, Maria A. (1858-1917)

2021-04-30T16:10:56Z

JoeSpringer: Added sentence about her similarly-named younger sister and a link to the Gameo article on her sister.

__FORCETOC__
__TOC__
[[File:Maria-Gerber-with-orphans-at-Zinjidere-Turkey.jpg|300px|thumb|''Maria-Gerber-with-orphans-at-Zinjidere-Turkey, ca. 1910. Photo courtesy of Max Haines'']]
Maria Anna Gerber was born as "Marianna" in Les Vaux, [[Bern (Switzerland)|Canton Bern]], [[Switzerland]] on 30 May 1858 to a Mennonite couple, Christian Gerber (7 August 1818-27 January 1888) and Elizabeth Geiser Gerber (4 June 1827-30 December 1890). She was the seventh child in a family of seven daughters and five sons that lived on a farm called Bellelay. (Her similarly-named younger sister [[Index.php?title=Petter, Marie Gerber (1869-1910)|Marie Gerber Petter]] was a missionary among Native Americans in Oklahoma.) A sickly child, at the age of 12 Maria became ill with rheumatic fever, tuberculosis, and edema. A doctor told her family that Maria would die and her mother gave away her clothes. This near-death experience led Maria to a profound conversion experience following which she felt the call of the Lord to be a witness for Him. Maria Gerber never married. She died 17 January 1917 in Pasadena, [[California (USA)|California]], USA. She is buried in Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale), Glendale, California.

Maria Gerber went to Bern to join a Deaconess Home in 1881 and also took training to become a nurse. On 21 April 1885 she left the home after the head sister felt Maria had an independent and presumptuous spirit that did not fit into the Deaconess Home.

Maria met [[Sprunger, John A. (1852-1911)|Rev. and Mrs. J. A. Sprunger]] in 1889 when they were visiting and evangelizing in Switzerland and became interested in their vision of a deaconess work in the USA. She arrived in New York on 31 July 1891, and attended the New York Missionary Training College of the Christian and Missionary Alliance in that city.

Maria Gerber then journeyed to [[Berne (Indiana, USA)|Berne]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]] and helped to train the initial group of deaconesses for the new [[Light and Hope Missionary Society|Missionary Society Light and Hope]] in 1892. Maria also had contact with [[Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-1899)|Dwight Moody]] and his Bible Institute in [[Chicago (Illinois, USA)|Chicago]] and during the 1893 World’s Fair she was a soloist during his evangelistic campaigns.

In October 1894 she opened the Light and Hope Hospital in [[Cleveland (Ohio, USA)|Cleveland]], [[Ohio (USA)|Ohio]]. She was in charge of that hospital when it burned on 1 February 1895. One deaconess nurse and three patients died in that fire. The hospital soon reopened in another location in Cleveland. Part of her job entailed fundraising. In 1895 she went to [[Waterloo County (Ontario, Canada)|Waterloo County]], [[Ontario (Canada)|Ontario]], [[Canada]] and visited several Mennonite churches raising funds for the Cleveland orphanage. At a later time, she and Helen Penner went to Europe raising funds for an Armenian mission. Mennonites in [[Russia]] helped to support orphans in [[United Orphanage and Mission Society, The|The United Orphanage and Mission Society]].

In May 1896 Maria Gerber was one of the deaconess nurses who helped start what is now Bromenn Hospital in [[Bloomington (Illinois, USA)|Bloomington]], [[Illinois (USA)|Illinois]]. She was a dear friend of [[Musselman, Rose Lambert (1878-1974)|Sister Rose Lambert]] and the plight of the persecuted Armenians in [[Turkey]] weighed heavily on their hearts. Garabed Der Hagopian, a survivor of the 1894-1896 Armenian massacre, in which his wife died, had pleaded for the cause of the many orphans left from that terrible time. His presentations included the Light and Hope Hospital in Cleveland, Ohio where Maria Gerber and Rose Lambert were both working. In November 1898 they set out for Turkey.

Maria Gerber and Rose Lambert arrived in Turkey at the end of 1898 and began their work in [[Hadjin (Adana, Turkey)|Hadjin]], a city of 30,000 in the Taurus Mountains. They rented houses where they could care for 200 orphans and fed hundreds of starving people. Maria also traveled from town to town sharing the gospel. Thanks to the gift of easily learning languages Maria was soon was conversant in the language. In Hadjin she found ways to make jobs for the many widows so they could provide for themselves. Support for the orphanage was given by friends in Europe and the United States, particularly from German Mennonite friends.

After five years in Hadjin, with her health failing, Maria Gerber returned to the United States in 1902 to recover. On her return to Turkey in 1904, Maria ministered in Konya (Iconium) for six months, then moved to near the city of Kayseri (Caesarea) in Cappadocia in a town called Zinjidere. A Greek businessman was sympathetic to Maria’s desire to build an orphanage and gave her two acres. Four stone houses were built in two years so that Zion Orphan’s Home opened in 1908.

In 1914 Maria became very ill and the orphans gathered around her bed in prayer and healing came to her body. After [[World War (1914-1918)|World War I]] broke out, Maria made a trip to the USA to seek more financial support. The Turkish military took over the Zion orphanage buildings. Maria was back in the USA before the Armenian genocide took took full force. In 1917 she completed a book, ''Passed experiences, present conditions, hope for the future'', on her life, designed to help raise funds for her orphanage.

Maria Gerber died after suffering several strokes in 1917. Her will left all the money she had raised to the Zion Orphans Home. She surely had a busy and productive life lived for her Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.

= Bibliography =
Cosmades, Thomas. "Maria, God’s angel to widows and orphans in Anatolia." Thomas Cosmades Foundation. 2009. Web. 14 February 2020. http://cosmades.org/articles/Maria%20%20God's%20Angel%20to%20Widows%20and%20Orphans%20with%20pictures.pdf.

Gerber, Maria A. ''Passed Experiences, Present Conditions, Hope for the Future''. Ramsey-Burnes Printing Co., Pasadena, California, 1917. Available in full electronic text at https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39076002820160&view=1up&seq=1.

''Gospel Banner'' (29 October 1895): 8; (5 November 1895): 8.

Huffman, Jasper A., ed. ''History of the Mennonite Brethren in Christ Church''. New Carlisle, Ohio: The Bethel Pub. Co, 1920: 193. Available in full electronic text at https://archive.org/details/historymennonit00huffgoog/page/n5/mode/2up.

"Maria Anna Gerber." Find a Grave. 15 July 2016. Web. 14 February 2020. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/167030968.

"Marianna Gerber." SAGA (Swiss Anabaptist Genealogical Association) Genealogical Website. Web. 12 May 2014. http://69.197.190.243/getperson.php?personID=I8622&tree=habegger.

Needham, Harold K. "Miss Mary Gerber with Jesus." ''The Weekly Evangel'' No. 221 (5 January 1918): 13. Available in full electronic text at https://pentecostalarchives.org/digitalPublications/USA/Assemblies%20of%20God%20USA/Pentecostal%20Evangel/Unregistered/1918/FPHC/1918_01_05.pdf#search=%22Gerber%22.

Niklaus, Robert L., John S. Swain and Samuel J. Stoetz. ''All for Jesus: God at work in the Christian and Missionary Alliance over one hundred years.'' Camp Hill, Pa.: Christian Publications, 1986: 103

Rodgers, Darrin J. "This week in AG history--Dec. 4, 1915." Assemblies of God. 6 December 2018. Web. 14 February 2020. https://news.ag.org/en/Features/This-Week-in-AG-History-Dec-4-1915.

{{GAMEO_footer|hp=|date=February 2020|a1_last=Haines|a1_first=Max|a2_last=Fuller|a2_first=Clare}}

[[Category:Persons]]
[[Category:Missionaries]]
[[Category:Mennonite Brethren in Christ Missionaries]]
[[Category:Missionaries in Turkey]]

Bayern Federal State (Germany)

2021-04-19T18:19:57Z

JoeSpringer: Corrected spelling of author's last name (Burkart, was misentered as Burkhart)--request of author

__TOC__
= 1955 Article =
[[File:Bavariamap.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Bavaria, Germany 
Source: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikipedia Commons]'']]
Bayern (Bavaria), the largest federal state in [[Germany|Germany]], in the Reformation period a duchy. Here the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] were most ruthlessly persecuted and most violently suppressed. The reigning dukes were Wilhelm IV and [[Ludwig X, Duke of Bavaria (1495-1545)|Ludwig]], who pronounced the horrifying watchword:"All Anabaptists are to be punished with death. Whoever [[Recantation|recants]] will be beheaded; whoever does not recant will be burned." With inexorable severity this command was carried out. Between 1527 and 1581, 223 Anabaptists were executed in Bavarian territory. Moving hymns relate the valiant martyrdom of the following Anabaptists: [[Blüetl, Hans (d. 1545)|Hans Blüetl]], burned at [[Ried im Innkreis (Oberösterreich, Austria)|Ried]], 24 June 1545; [[Rauffer, Wolf (d. 1585)|Wolf Rauffer]], [[Bruckmaier, Georg (d. 1585)|Jörg Bruckmayer]], [[Aichner, Hans (d. 1585)|Hans Aichner]], beheaded there 13 August 1585; [[Summerauer, Leonhard (d. 1585) |Leonhard Sumerauer]], beheaded at [[Burghausen (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Burghausen]] 5 July 1585; [[Gasteiger, Christian (d. 1586)|Christian Geiger]], beheaded at [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]] 13 September 1586 (Oesterreichisches Jahrbuch des Protestantismus XIII, 81). Other names belong to this list of martyrs: [[Plattner, Vigilg (d. 1529)|Virgil Plattner]], beheaded at [[Schärding (Oberösterreich, Austria)|Schärding]] in 1529; [[Leitner, Hans (d. 1560)|Hans Mändel]] and [[Felbinger, Klaus (d. 1560) |Claus Felbinger]], executed at [[Landshut (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Landshut]] in 1560; [[Binder, Wolf (d. 1571)|Wolf Binder]] at Schärding in 1571; [[Fischer, Michael (d. 1587)|Michael Fischer]] at [[Ingolstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Ingolstadt]] in 1587; [[Boltzinger, Leonhard (d. 1591)|Leonhard Boltzinger]] at Julbach near Braunau; [[Haan, Thoman (d. 1592)|Thomas Haan]] at Freiberg near Braunau 12 May 1592; and Max Eder at Ried in 1565 (Wolkan, Lieder). This is a sad list of martyrs, whose memory lived on among the Anabaptists in the many martyr hymns sung in many congregations.

[[Winter, Vitus Anton (1754-1814)|Vitus Anton Winter]] reports (Gesch. der bayrischen Wiedertäufer im 16. Jahrh.) that as early as 1528 "all Bavaria was full of Anabaptists, preaching in villages and baptizing in barns." Among the Anabaptists expelled from [[Augsburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg]] 12 Janueary 1528, were many Bavarians (Riezler, Gesch. Bayerns IV, 189); Hans Geraysig of Hochdorf and Diemut of Mammendorf, etc., are named. In Landshut [[Würtzlburger, Augustin (d. 1528)|Augustin Würzelburger]] was active as an Anabaptist; he transplanted the movement to Oberhaim near Siesbach with great success. [[Sedlmaier, Hans (d. 1528)|Hans Sedlmayr]] and Hans Frank, whom he won for the movement, died a few weeks later as martyrs in [[Landshut (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Landshut]]. The mandate of Wilhelm IV, dated 15 November 1527, against the Anabaptists, opened a veritable hunt for them. Anyone who was in the least suspected was arrested and tried on the rack. Most of them were executed. At the command of Wilhelm, the schoolteacher [[Wagner, Georg (d. 1527)|Georg Wagner]] of Emmering was taken to [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]], placed in the Falkenturm, and burned at the stake, 18 February 1527. Many others followed him. Those who were not beheaded or burned were drowned in the Isar. Anabaptists were also executed in Straubing and Aibling. On 23 December 1527, nine were executed and a woman drowned in Landshut by ducal order. On 7 January 1528, two noblemen, [[Perwanger, Augustin and Christoph (d. 1528)|Augustin and Christoph von Perwangen]], were executed with the sword at [[Günzlhofen (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Günzlhofen]] and Vogach together with a miller from Milstetten in Munich. On 28 January six artisans of Munich were burned in a room. [[Prenner, Jakob (d. 1528)|Jakob (or Jörg) Prenner]], a laborer of Schmiechen, who had baptized 18 persons, was beheaded at [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]]. In other parts of Bavaria many Anabaptists were executed. At Landsberg on 15 May 1528 three were burned and one beheaded (Riezler, Gesch. Bayerns IV, 194). The bishop of Regensburg was compelled by the Bavarian dukes by repeated reproaches to execute the imprisoned Augustin Würzelburger on 10 October 1528.

[[File:Bayern.png|338px|thumb|right|''Bavarian Administrative Districts'']]
Yet this violence did not succeed in suppressing the movement. On 27 April 1529, the dukes issued a second mandate against the Anabaptists, "that henceforth none of them would escape execution even if he recanted." In the next year the Anabaptists Hans Haschen and Pankratz Wördt were killed. Anabaptists passing through from [[Moravia (Czech Republic)|Moravia]] to the [[p3594.html|Palatinate]], Hesse, and [[Switzerland|Switzerland]], were seized. On 22 April 1535 Bishop Ernst of [[Passau (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Passau]] issued a mandate forbidding anyone to give shelter to a Moravian Anabaptist. On 19 May 1535, 15 Anabaptists—seven men, five women, and three children—were captured and placed in the Oberhaus, a castle in Passau (Wolkan, Lieder). On 14 September 1535, 14 additional Moravian Anabaptists were tried on the rack, followed several hours later by another group of 20, including [[Beck, Hans (Moravia, 16th century)|Hans Beck]] of Greding near Eichstätt and his wife Elisabeth. He stated that he had already been previously captured at Eggenburg, but released with 20 others after their cheeks had been burned through with hot irons. On 24 September 1535, again five Anabaptists were seized. None of all these Anabaptists left the prison alive .

In 1559 the news of the existence of an Anabaptist congregation in [[Schrobenhausen (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Schrobenhausen]] stirred up renewed action. Cardinal Otto of Augsburg called the attention of [[Albrecht V, Duke of Bavaria (1528-1579)|Duke Albrecht V]] to the presence of Anabaptists there. In haste the duke sent his officers to investigate, but little came of the affair. Hans Lor, the cobbler in whose house the meetings had been held, had fled. Two persons under suspicion were arrested, but their utterances revealed nothing damaging, and they were released. There was doubtless more truth in the report that [[Burghausen (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Burghausen]] was an Anabaptist center. As already stated, many died there as martyrs.

[[Wilhelm V, Duke of Bavaria (1548-1626)|Duke Wilhelm V]] also made it his business to rid the land of Anabaptists. In 1579 he issued a mandate, that "they should be suppressed with all our might." When he learned that Anabaptists were coming from [[Moravia (Czech Republic)|Moravia]] to win converts, he issued the harsh mandate of 30 September 1584, "to admit no one, to arrest at once all who entered and deliver them to the courts." A reward of 40 to 50 guilders was offered to anyone reporting an Anabaptist to the government. Nevertheless it is reported that they succeeded in winning 600 Bavarians and inducing them to immigrate to Moravia. Some of the most successful secret emissaries of the Anabaptists were [[Zuckenhammer, Hans (d. 1598)|Hans Zuckenhammer]], a blacksmith and hymn writer, Bastel Segenschmidt, Paul Schuster, [[Vischer, Lienhard (16th century)|Lienhard Vischer]], and Hans Körner.

On 28 February 1587, a sharper edict followed, which ordered the officials, on penalty of severe punishment and disfavor, to build a dam that could not be crossed by the intolerable sect of the Anabaptists, which increase day by day in Bavaria, and especially to track down their leaders, Hans Zuckenhammer and Bastel Segenschmidt. For the capture of one of these leaders a reward of 100 florins was offered, and for the capture of an ordinary Anabaptist, 25 to 30 florins. These strong measures were apparently successful, for from now on little is heard of Anabaptists in Bavaria. A few years later the movement seems to have disappeared without a trace.

Approximately 200 years later an elector of Bavaria admitted the Anabaptists back into the country. Those whom his ancestors had most cruelly expelled, he recalled as capable colonists and as good and useful subjects. In 1802, on the invitation of Max Joseph IV, eight Mennonite families left their homes in the [[Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany)|Palatinate]] and settled between Neuburg and [[Ingolstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Ingolstadt]] on the right bank of the Danube. They founded the Mennonite colony of [[Maxweiler (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Maxweiler]] in [[Donaumoos (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Donaumoos]]. With tremendous effort they worked to turn the marshes into arable and fertile land. On 9 December 1832, they dedicated their newly erected chapel. Twenty years later the congregation was dissolved. In 1855 all of the Mennonites living in [[Maxweiler (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Maxweiler]] sold their property and immigrated to America. Three families remained in [[Ingolstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Ingolstadt]], and others near [[Neuburg an der Donau (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Neuburg a.d.D]]. Their descendants belong to the congregations at Ingolstadt and [[Donauwörth Mennonite Church (Donauwörth, Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Donauwörth]].

A few years after the founding of Maxweiler, a Mennonite congregation was established at [[Eichstock (Oberbayern, Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Eichstock]] near [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]] in Upper Bavaria. In 1818 the first Mennonite families settled here. These came from [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]]; they were joined by others from the Palatinate, [[Hesse (Germany)|Hesse]], and [[Baden (Germany)|Baden]]. The immigration lasted until 1848; it was strongest in 1820. But very few families settled there permanently. Most of them immigrated to America. (See Menn. Bl., 1886, where the families are enumerated.) The congregation still exists in 1950, though it is very small.

The congregations at [[Bildhausen (Münnerstadt, Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Bildhausen]] and [[Mönchshof (Schweinfurt, Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Mönchshof]] near Schweinfurt in northern Bavaria came into being somewhat earlier than Maxweiler. About 1770 several families emigrating from Baden and Württemberg settled here. The former had a church of their own with an organ, and in 1838 a school. Their first preacher was Christian Stauffer of the Spitalhof near [[Neustadt an der Weinstrasse (Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany)|Neustadt a.d.H.]], who went to America in 1844. In 1856 Bildhausen and Mönchshof numbered 140 communicant members. The congregation is now extinct, their remnant joining the church at [[Trappstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Trappstadt]] in Lower Franconia.

The church at [[Rottenbauer (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Rottenbauer]] near [[Würzburg-Giebelstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Würzburg]] arose about 1805. Jakob Bühler and Michael Bähr, who came here from near Heidelberg, are considered its founders. When other families from [[Baden (Germany)|Baden]] settled here, the [[Giebelstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Giebelstadt]] congregation was formed. Since 1804 three Mennonite families had been living on the Hettstädterhof; they had their own services. Their preacher was Michael Musselmann.

The [[Amish Mennonites|Amish Mennonite]] settlers who came to the region of [[Ingolstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Ingolstadt]] and [[Regensburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Regensburg]] from [[Alsace (France)|Alsace]] and Hesse from 1808 on established two congregations which have been named after these two major centers, although actually no Mennonites lived in these cities until recently, and the Amish meetings were held alternately on the various farms. Regensburg seems to have been the more active group about the middle of the 19th century since in the brief period of 1852-1877 six Mennonite publications appeared here: Neu-Vermehrtes Geistliches Lustgärtlein, 1852 and 1854; Die Ernsthafte Christenpflicht, 1852, a Gesangbuch, 1859; a Christliches Glaubensbekenntnis, 1876, and a Katechismus, 1877. Since 1893 the Regensburg congregation has met in a rented hall in the city. The Amish groups near Ingolstadt died out largely through emigration to America, but were replaced by Mennonite settlers from the Palatinate in the second half of the century, and from Baden and Franconia at the turn of the century and later. In 1891 a congregation was formed at Rottmannshart, which in 1905 was relocated in Ingolstadt, where it built its own meetinghouse in 1951. A similar group of Amish families settled near Munich in the first half of the 20th century, meeting on the farms for worship. Beginning in 1880 Mennonite families from [[Baden (Germany)|Baden]] also settled here. In 1892 these two groups merged to form the Munich Mennonite congregation. Munich, Regensburg, and Eichstock have had a joint salaried, trained minister since 1905, quite in contradistinction to the other congregations in Bavaria belonging to the Badischer Verband, who have never had a trained salaried minister. These three churches have also, alone in Bavaria, joined the Vereinigung (1928).

The membership of the congregations are listed below

{| class="wikitable"
| Name || 1930 || 1940 || 1950
|-
| [[Augsburg Mennonite Church (Augsburg, Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Augsburg-Donauwörth]] || align="right" | 55 || align="right" | 75 || align="right" | 60
|-
| [[Eichstock (Oberbayern, Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Eichstock]] || align="right" | 19 || align="right" | 22 || align="right" | 27
|-
| [[Ingolstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Ingolstadt]] || align="right" | - || align="right" | 122 || align="right" | 149
|-
| [[Munich (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Munich]] || align="right" | 139 || align="right" | 168 || align="right" | 162
|-
| [[Nürnberg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Nürnberg]] || align="right" | - || align="right" | - || align="right" | 30
|-
| [[Regensburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Regensburg]] || align="right" | 100 || align="right" | 135 || align="right" | 164
|-
| [[Trappstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Trappstadt]] || align="right" | 61 || align="right" | 70 || align="right" | 82
|-
| [[Würzburg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Würzburg]] || align="right" | 105 || align="right" | 59 || align="right" | 70
|-
| Total || align="right" | 469 || align="right" | 651 || align="right" | 744
|}
Four congregations, Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Trappstadt, and Würzburg, in 1950 belonged to the Badischer Verband conference. The three, Eichstock, Munich, and Regensburg, have for years had a joint pastor, and belong to the Vereinigung. All the congregations except Ingolstadt, in 1928 formed the Union of Bavarian Congregations ([[Vereinigung bayerischer Mennonitengemeinden (Union of Bavarian Mennonite Churches)|Vereinigung der Bayerischen Mennoniten-Gemeinden]]), which however is only a legal corporation and not a church conference.

In Bavaria the question of nonresistance was decided by the regulation of January 1805, which stated that no creed could release a subject from military duty. But by paying a fee of 185 fl. per man of military age to pay for substitutes from voluntary recruits, they could be released. Since the introduction of universal military conscription, freedom from armed service has been completely eliminated in Bavaria. Mennonites here were not given the privilege granted by the Order of Cabinet of William I of Prussia in 1868.

King Max I (d. 1825) of Bavaria was very favorably inclined toward the Mennonites. He granted them religious freedom and all the rights of citizenship enjoyed by other subjects, and solicited their settlement in Bavaria. The fact that in 1801 the Palatinate, the home of many Mennonites, was added to his dominions, was no doubt the occasion for his action favoring Mennonite settlers. For a full account of the legal provisions made for Mennonites in the 19th century see "Bayern," [[Mennonitisches Lexikon|Mennonitisches Lexikon]] I: 145-47.

Bavarian Mennonites have furnished some outstanding farmers, who in the 1950s were honored with the title of "master farmer." In the person of [[Horsch, Michael (1871-1949)|Elder Michael Horsch]] (1871-1949) of the [[Hellmannsberg (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Hellmannsberg]]-[[Ingolstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Ingolstadt]] congregation, formerly of [[Giebelstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Giebelstadt]], Bavaria furnished South German Mennonitism one of its outstanding leaders of the 20th century, for a generation the leader of the Badischer Verband. 

The Mennonite relief organization known as [[Mennonitisches Hilfswerk Christenpflicht|Christenpflicht]] was organized in 1921-1922 under the leadership of [[Horsch, Michael (1871-1949)|Michael Horsch]], with a board of directors of the Bavarian churches, and has had its seat continuously in [[Ingolstadt (Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Ingolstadt]] from the beginning. An old people's home was established at [[Burgweinting Home for the Aged (Regensburg, Freistaat Bayern, Germany)|Burgweinting]] near Regensburg in 1931, which had been begun at Niederwinser in 1929. -- ''Christian Neff''

= 1990 Update =
In 1987 Bavarian Mennonites were represented in eight congregations whose numbers ranged from 28 to 137; total membership was 521.

Members were scattered widely. Some, who live too far away to attend Mennonite worship regularly, worship with other denominations. A number of people take part in the life of a Mennonite congregation while retaining membership in other churches. Five congregations rented facilities in which to worship. One group, which has owned a meeting-house since 1841, built a youth retreat center nearby in 1967. Two congregations built their own facilities in 1965 and 1982 respectively. Members also gather in homes for small-group meetings.

There is a clear tendency toward team ministry; 20 lay ministers served in the congregations, four churches had salaried part-time pastors also. The traditional mode of [[Baptism|baptism]] is by pouring, although some congregations are willing to perform immersion upon request. Once a year the Bavarian Mennonites gather for a one-day conference. -- ''Rainer W. Burkhart''
= Bibliography =
Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. ''Mennonitisches Lexikon'', 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. I, 141-147.

Riezler, Sigmund von. Geschichte Bayerns, 9 vols. 1880-1932: v. IV.

Winter, V. A. Geschichte der bayrischen Wiedertäufer im 16. Jahrhundert. Munich, 1809.
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 1, pp. 251-253; v. 5, p. 60|date=1987|a1_last=Neff|a1_first=Christian|a2_last=Burkart|a2_first=Rainer W.}}
[[Category:Places]]
[[Category:States of Germany]]

Lapp, George Jay (1879-1951)

2016-04-13T19:24:58Z

JoeSpringer: Corrected spelling of first wife's name from "Esmer" to "Esther"

George Jay Lapp: missionary; born 26 May 1879 at Juniata, Nebraska, was one of the eight children of Samuel W. and Sarah (Gross) Lapp. He was married twice: (1) Esther Ebersole, 25 June 1905; (2) Fanny Hershey, 14 April 1920. Mrs. J. Lawrence Burkholder (Harriet) and Mrs. Ezra Camp (Lois) were daughters. He died 25 January 1951 at [[Goshen (Indiana, USA)|Goshen]], [[Indiana (USA)|Indiana]].

George attended [[Elkhart Institute (Elkhart, Indiana, USA)|Elkhart Institute]] one year in 1901, then Northwestern University two years 1901-1903. His degrees were: B.A., [[Goshen College (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Goshen College]] (1913); M.R.E., [[Bethany Theological Seminary (Richmond, Indiana, USA)|Bethany Biblical Seminary]] (1930); B.D., [[Goshen Biblical Seminary (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Goshen College Biblical Seminary]] (1947).

George was an outstanding foreign missionary of the [[Mennonite Church (MC)|Mennonite Church (MC)]], having served nearly 40 years (1905-1945) in the Central Provinces of [[India|India]]. He was ordained to the ministry in 1905, and as bishop in India in 1928. He served as interim president of [[Goshen College (Goshen, Indiana, USA)|Goshen College]] from February 1918 to June 1919.

In India he was the founder and director of the Mennonite Bible School from 1910 to its merger with the [[Dhamtari Christian Academy (Dhamtari, Chhattisgarh State, India)|Dhamtari Christian Academy]] in 1931. He was a member of the National Christian Council of India and under its direction made a study of rural life, which was published as The Christian Church and Rural India (Calcutta, 1938). He wrote and published in Hindi Menno Simons and the Mennonite Church (Jubbulpore, 1929) and Fundamental Doctrines of the Bible (Jubbulpore, 1933).
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 3, p. 294|date=1957|a1_last=Bender|a1_first=Harold S|a2_last=|a2_first=}}

Funk, Annie C. (1874-1912)

2016-01-19T14:44:57Z

JoeSpringer: corrected Mennonite Weekly Review citation (print version had also been incorrect with "(19 January 1986): 4"

[[File:MLA2006-0206.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Annie C. Funk, postcard issued

after her death, ca. 1915.

Source: [http://www.bethelks.edu/mla/holdings/scans/ Mennonite Library and

Archives,] Photo 2006-0206'']] Annie Funk perished with 1,517 other people when the "unsinkable" ocean liner, Titanic, sank on the night of 15 April 1912. A [[General Conference Mennonite Church (GCM)|General Conference Mennonite]] woman who went to [[Janjgir Mennonite Church (Janjgir-Champa, Chhattisgarh, India)|Janjgir]], [[India|India]], in 1906 at the age of 32, Annie Funk was born on 12 April 1874. She was the daughter of James B. and Susanna Clemmer Funk, and grew up in Eastern [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] in the beautiful Butter Valley, about three miles (5 km) from the [[Hereford Mennonite Church (Bally, Pennsylvania, USA)|Hereford Mennonite Church]], located at [[Bally (Pennsylvania, USA)|Bally]] in [[Berks County (Pennsylvania, USA)|Berks County]].

She received her training at the West Chester State Normal School and at the Northfield [Mass.] Training School founded by [[Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-1899)|D. L. Moody]]. Before going to India in November 1906, she had served among the blacks in Chattanooga, Tennessee, and with the Young Women's Christian Association at Paterson, New Jersey.

Her faith was symbolized by a reply she made to a concerned friend who reminded her of the dangerous ocean voyage in 1906: "Our heavenly Father is as near to us on sea as on land. My trust is in Him. I have no fear."

She was a dedicated and beloved worker in India. The girls' school at Janjgir, which she founded in 1908, was later named the Annie C. Funk Memorial School.

In 1912 she was called home to [[Pennsylvania (USA)|Pennsylvania]] because of the illness of her mother. In England she unexpectedly secured passage on the Titanic because a coal strike had delayed the S.S. Haverford on which she was booked.

When the Titanic struck an iceburg in the North Atlantic and began to sink, there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all of the passengers. Annie, according to a confirmed report, unselfishly relinquished her place in a lifeboat to a mother with children. When Annie's friends back in Pennsylvania heard of this incident they said, "It was just like Annie to do something like that."
= Bibliography =
Handbook of Information, General Conference Mennonite Church. Newton, KS. (1913): 17-21.

Juhnke, James C. A People of Mission: A History of General Conference Mennonite Overseas Missions. Newton, KS: Faith and Life, 1979: 229, index.

Mennonite (18 April-13 June 1912).

Mennonite Life 12 (January 1957): 44-46.

Mennonite Weekly Review (26 December 1985): 6.

Ruth, John. Maintaining the right fellowship: a narrative account of life in the oldest Mennonite community in North America. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1984: 412-414.
{{GAMEO_footer|hp=Vol. 5, p. 891|date=1989|a1_last=Krabill|a1_first=Russell R|a2_last= |a2_first= }}